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Tag: mental-health

  • Science Behind Drugs

    Science Behind Drugs

    By Charlotte Lee

    ~ 8 minutes

    What are Drugs?

    • Drugs are chemical substances that can alter or affect the structure or function of the body.
    • They can be used for medicinal purposes or recreational purposes, as well as be addictive or non-addictive.
    • They can be classified as stimulants, depressants, opioids, hallucinogens, cannabinoids, and inhalants.

    Why are Certain Drugs Addictive?

    Drugs interfere with the ways that neurons interact with neurotransmitters. Some drugs, like marijuana, mimic the neurotransmitters in the brain, which allows them to activate certain neurons. 

    Marijuana is a type of cannabinoid, which is a class of chemical compounds from the cannabis plant that originated in Asia. The cannabis plant was first used to make ropes and textiles, but was later used for medicinal and spiritual purposes. Additionally, they can be medicinal, psychoactive, or non-psychoactive and stay in the body for 3-4 days after use. 

    THC, which is the main active component in marijuana, binds to the cannabinoid receptors in the brain. This binding mimics neurotransmitters and triggers a release of dopamine, and increased use of marijuana leads to more dopamine being released, creating a reinforcement loop that leads to addiction.

    Medical marijuana / Harvard Health Publishing / Harvard Medical School

    Although the chemicals in the drugs mimic the neurotransmitters, they are not exactly the same. This causes them to send abnormal messages and, in the case of some drugs like heroin, send an increase of dopamine because they bind to and activate opioid receptors. This also blocks the transmission of pain and causes a large amount of pain relief. Additionally, it can lead to dependence because it causes the brain to reduce the number of endorphins and the sensitivity of opioid receptors. Over time, the brain and body become dependent on external stimulants like heroin to feel any sense of happiness.

    Heroin, another narcotic, is a very strong, highly addictive drug that comes from morphine, which is extracted from a part of the opium plant. It can cause severe withdrawal symptoms, overdose, liver and kidney disease, and many other negative side effects. Heroin can come in the form of a white or brownish powder, or a black, sticky substance. It is typically injected, snorted, or smoked and considered a Schedule I controlled substance in the U.S. and most other countries. That means that the drug is illegal, has a high potential for abuse, and is not accepted for any type of medical use.

    Cocaine, another popular narcotic, comes from the leaves of a coca plant, native to South America, most commonly, Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia. Traditionally, people in the Andes chewed or brewed coca leaves as a medicine and stimulant; however, industrial processing has made their effects more potent, creating a drug trade. Cocaine is highly addictive and can cause serious health concerns like depression, bleeding in the lungs, and inflammation. Cocaine is illegal in the US, as it hijacks the brain’s reward system, causing a flood of dopamine and other neurotransmitters, but it can be used for medical purposes with restrictions. Over time, the brain and body become dependent on cocaine to feel any sense of happiness.

    New Ingredient in Cocaine Vaccine Shows Promise in Mouse Study / Duke Health

    These drugs affect the ganglia, a part of the brain responsible for relaying pleasurable effects and forming routines. The over-stimulation of a nerve cluster can lead to a feeling of euphoria or a dopamine release. The large amounts of dopamine make the brain connect drugs to the good feeling and teach the brain to continue using drugs. However, the ganglia are also the reason the drug’s high fades over time, as they adapt to its constant presence and become less sensitive to its effects.

    Drugs are more addictive than natural activities that release dopamine, like working out, because drug misuse can lead to fewer neurotransmitters being released in general. This makes a person’s overall ability to feel pleasure for regular activities lower, making them feel flat or unmotivated in general. This also leads to people needing more and more drugs to feel a normal level of reward.

    While many drugs are plant-derived and addictive, the rise of synthetic drugs is creating an unprecedented danger due to unnatural chemicals increasing the potency and unpredictability of the drug.

    QUICK CAUTIONS: Synthetic Drugs

    • They are often illegal and have very little quality control, which makes the potency and effects of the drug unpredictable.
    • Synthetic drugs are easily contaminated with other hazardous materials, poisons, or drugs. Untested stimulants and chemicals may also exist in the drug, where the long-term side effects are unknown. For example, many drugs are often laced with the synthetic drug fentanyl, which is very strong and can increase the high, causing consumers to keep buying the drug. However, fentanyl is extremely deadly and a little amount can be fatal, leading to an increase in overdose deaths.
    • Manufacturers constantly modify the chemical structure of the drugs to increase the high and addictiveness of the drug as well as evade authorities. This also makes it harder for medical professionals to treat overdoses or reactions because they are not familiar with the drug.
    • Synthetic drugs are often sold under misleading names with colorful packaging to evade authorities, which can lead to accidental consumption. For example, Spice and K2 are common names for a lab-made drug that mimics the THC in marijuana by mimicking marijuana’s chemical structure. It is often sold under the name of herbal incense or potpourri to sound more enticing and evade authorities.
    Synthetic drugs: Don’t ‘spice’ it up / Joint Base Langley-Eustis

    References

    Australian Government. (2019, July 17). What Are Drugs? Australian Government Department of Health and Aged Care; Australian Government. https://www.health.gov.au/topics/drugs/about-drugs/what-are-drugs
    Better Health Channel. (2019). Synthetic drugs. Better Health Channel. https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/HealthyLiving/synthetic-drugs
    Content Background: Why Do Plants Make Drugs? – PEP. (n.d.). https://sites.duke.edu/thepepproject/module-5-why-do-plants-make-drugs-for-humans/content-background-why-do-plants-make-drugs/
    DEA. (2021). Coca. Museum.dea.gov. https://museum.dea.gov/exhibits/online-exhibits/cannabis-coca-and-poppy-natures-addictive-plants/coca
    Karimi, A., Maedeh Majlesi, & Mahmoud Rafieian-Kopaei. (2015). Herbal versus synthetic drugs; beliefs and facts. Journal of Nephropharmacology, 4(1), 27. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5297475/
    Manual, B. (2014, October 17). Marijuana’s History: How One Plant Spread Through the World. Live Science; Live Science. https://www.livescience.com/48337-marijuana-history-how-cannabis-travelled-world.htm
    National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. (2019). Cannabis (Marijuana) and Cannabinoids: What You Need to Know. NCCIH. https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/cannabis-marijuana-and-cannabinoids-what-you-need-to-know
    Understanding the language of addiction. (2019, June 26). Harvard Health. https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/understanding-the-language-of-addiction


  • The Science Behind Flow State

    The Science Behind Flow State

    By: Maggie Wright

    ~ 3 minutes

    Recently, the phrase ‘flow state’ has gone viral on social media, but most people have no clue what’s actually happening in the brain. Creative outlets for your brain start with the flow state, a mental state you can enter during creative activities like art, dance, writing poetry, or even giving a creative speech. When you are fully immersed in what you’re doing, the mind becomes deeply focused and present. This experience is known as the flow state.

    Being in this state can trigger the release of feel-good chemicals such as dopamine, which is associated with pleasure and reward. These chemicals positively affect your brain chemistry and help bring it into balance. The more often you engage in creative activities that lead you into this flow state, the more positive the effects on your mental and emotional health.

    Make the Most of Your Happy Chemicals – Wellbeing Infographic / Trainer Bubble ©

    Routine also plays an important role in achieving flow state. While the brain may become bored with repetition, the discipline of regularly doing creative work helps maintain the steady release of beneficial brain chemicals. Over time, this habit becomes a powerful tool for supporting emotional stability and improving overall brain function. It can also increase your capacity to learn and help you stay in a more positive mood. Your brain is like a muscle that can grow and change with use. Just as going to the gym strengthens your body, creative outlets help strengthen your brain. Whether you’re solving mental math problems, dancing, writing, or painting, these activities exercise the brain in meaningful ways, and with time, you will begin to notice progress in your thinking, mood, and emotional resilience.

    Creative outlets are not just helpful in the long-term, they also provide temporary support. These outlets allow you to process emotions, deal with stress or trauma, and reflect on your day in a positive way. This results in a clear headspace and a more productive day.

    Engaging in creative activities can calm the amygdala, which is the part of the brain responsible for the fight-or-flight response. When you’re feeling anxious or stressed, the amygdala becomes highly active. Creative work signals to the brain that you’re safe, which helps reduce that activation and gives you a sense of relief and clarity. Incorporating creativity into your life is more than just enjoyable, it’s a powerful way to support your mental health and help your brain thrive.

    References

    Freepik. (n.d.). Psychology concept – Sunrise and dreamer woman silhouette [Digital image]. Freepik. https://www.freepik.com/premium-photo/psychology-concept-sunrise-dreamer-woman-silhouette_18124911.htm
    Jean-Berluche, D. (2024). Creative expression and mental health. Journal of Creativity, 34(2), 100083. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yjoc.2024.100083 ScienceDirect
    Kumar, V. et al. (2024). Creative pursuits for mental health and well-being. PMC
    Suttie, J. (2018, July 11). Where does happiness reside in the brain? Greater Good Science Center. https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/where_does_happiness_reside_in_the_brain 
    The Role of Handmade Crafts in Mental Health and Self-Care. (2023, January 25). Awesome Pattern Studio. https://awesomepatternstudio.com/blog/blog/the-role-of-handmade-crafts-in-mental-health-and-self-care/ Awesome Pattern Studio
    Trainer Bubble. (n.d.). Make the most of your happy chemicals – Wellbeing infographic [Infographic]. Trainer Bubble. https://www.trainerbubble.com/make-the-most-of-your-happy-chemicals-wellbeing-infographic/ 
    UCLA Health. (2025, May 15). 3 proven health benefits of having a hobby. https://www.uclahealth.org/news/article/3-proven-health-benefits-having-hobby UCLA Health
  • ‘The Second Brain’ The Gut Microbiome’s Effect on Your Mental Health

    ‘The Second Brain’ The Gut Microbiome’s Effect on Your Mental Health

    By Gianna Lee

    ~ 4 minutes

    Every year, in the United States, millions are diagnosed with schizophrenia, autism, and depression . These disabilities severely hinder people’s way of living, therefore, it is crucial for us to find ways to prevent individuals from suffering. In the past few years, research has shown that the gut has a significant connection with your brain.

    The ENS

    The ENS (enteric nervous system) is what some researchers call your “second brain.” It is composed of two layers that have hundreds of millions of nerve cells that dictate your mood shifts. Located in the gut, this system efficiently communicates with the central nervous system, connecting your mind and body.

    The ENS sends signals to your brain via the gut-brain axis. For example, when the gut signals hunger, the brain sends out a stressor leading to your blood sugar dropping, which makes you frustrated or irritated. This shows that the brain and gut are in constant communication, which can be linked to mental illness.  With this logic, we can understand that while microorganisms within the gut can prevent mental illness, others can cause them.

    In cases of Schizophrenia, clinical research has shown similarities within the gut between patients; 8 cases of Schizophrenia found that their gut contained similar gut microbiota such as: Lactobacillus, Enterococcus, and Bifidobacterium. Scientists then prescribed probiotics to these patients which reduced inflammation and contributed to a better state and overall mood.

    The Mind and Gut’s Relationship

    While research is still being developed regarding the link between the two, findings are piling up in order to help us understand the relationship between the gut and mind.

    In order to maintain a healthy gut and mindset, there are a few ways to keep yourself healthy. You are what you eat. Your diet is a major factor for a healthy gut, so nourishing your gut with a diverse and balanced diet can feed bacteria, allowing for an improved mood! Some healthy nutrition options include probiotics such as: kimchi, kefir, and other fermented items, as well as  prebiotics like green vegetables, legumes, whole grains, and nuts.

    Additionally, ways to completely treat mental illness are still being discovered. A process called “Faecal microbiota transplant” has recently been found to be a possible cure. The process allows  donors with healthy guts to donate stool to patients suffering from infected colons. This process is usually used to treat infection, however, studies were done that found out a few cases of clinical depression were cured through this process. 

    To sum it up, the gut microbiome may not seem like much, however it does play a significant role in mental health. The link between the two is still being studied to this day, with new findings revealing that treatments may cure existing mental illness. As of now, the current best way to maintain a healthy mental state is to ensure a healthy diet. Hopefully, one day we will be able to cure mental illness through these ground breaking discoveries, and when that happens, I will be here to report it!

    References

    GBD 2019 Mental Disorders Collaborators. (2022). Global, regional, and national burden of 12 mental disorders in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. The Lancet Psychiatry, 9(2), 137–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2215-0366(21)00395-3
    Health, N. (2025). The gut-mental health connection: How to improve both for overall well-being. Nuvance Health. https://www.nuvancehealth.org/health-tips-and-news/the-gut-mental-health-connection
    Johns Hopkins Medicine. (2019). The brain-gut Connection. John Hopkins Medicine. https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/the-brain-gut-connection
    Li, Z., Tao, X., Wang, D., Pu, J., Liu, Y., Gui, S., Zhong, X., Yang, D., Zhou, H., Tao, W., Chen, W., Chen, X., Chen, Y., Chen, X., & Xie, P. (2024). Alterations of the gut microbiota in patients with schizophrenia. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 15, 1366311. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1366311
    Morrow, R. (2021, November 17). 9 Soulicious Soup Recipes. Foodmatters.com; Food Matters. https://www.foodmatters.com/recipe/9-soulicious-soup-recipes

  • The Genetic Ticking Time Bomb

    The Genetic Ticking Time Bomb

    By Camila Garcia

    ~ 9 minutes

    Please see glossary for defined terms.

    Huntington’s Disease, discovered by George Huntington in 1872,  is a hereditary genetic brain disorder. Since then, many researchers have dedicated their lives to studying Huntington’s Disease. While we have not found a cure nor treatments to slow the progression, we have discovered how it works, what it is, what it can do, and how it is passed down. 

    George Huntington, an American physician from Long Island with a degree from Columbia University, published his paper “On Chorea” in 1872, describing Huntington’s Disease so accurately and succinctly that the disease was named after him. He was only 21 when his paper was published. However, he first encountered what would come to be known as Huntington’s Disease when he was 8 years old while accompanying his father and grandfather on medical rounds. Within “On Chorea”, he summarized three key characteristics of a person with Huntington’s Disease: their propensity to suicide and mental disorders, inheritance patterns, and progressive disabilities. This was his sole contribution to medical research. His paper shone a light on this “medical curiosity” from a new field of medicine and shook the medical research world into a frenzy to try to grasp what Huntington’s was and how it worked.

    Huntington’s Disease (HD), is inherited from your parents following an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern. It causes nerve cells, mainly in the basal ganglia, brain cortex, and the striatum, to gradually break down and lose function. More than 15,000 Americans currently have HD, but many more are at risk of developing it. There are two kinds of Huntington’s Disease, adult onset, the most common, and early onset, which affects children and teenagers. Fortunately, early onset is very rare, only affecting 5.7% of Huntington’s cases. HD affects an estimated 3 to 7 people out of 100,000, most commonly people of European descent. If a parent has HD, their child has a 50% chance of inheriting the genetic mutation as well. If the child does not inherit it, they will not show symptoms and cannot pass it down. On the condition that the patient has more than 50 CAG repeats, there is a 90% chance they inherited the gene from their father, because CAG repeats tend to be more unstable when passed from the male. There are situations where HD occurs without family history. This event is called Sporadic HD. 

    Huntington’s is a genetic mutation of the HTT gene. It produces a protein called huntingtin. This protein helps your nerves function. The HTT gene is found on chromosome 4, which also happens to be associated with the cause of many other genetic disorders and some types of cancer. The defect involves a DNA segment known as CAG trinucleotide repeat. It is made up of three DNA building blocks, cytosine, adenine, and guanine, appearing several times in a row. Normally, the CAG segments are repeated 10 to 35 times within a gene, and these people lie in the unaffected range, whether normal or intermediate allele sub-ranges.  To a person with Huntington’s, it can be repeated 36 to more than 120 times. They lie in the affected range, either reduced penetrance or full penetrance if they have more than 40 CAG repeats. People in the intermediate allele and the reduced penetrance sub-ranges, with 27-39 CAG repeats, may not develop symptoms but can be carriers. The increase in repeats leads to the production of abnormally long and oddly shaped huntingtin proteins. The elongated protein forms toxic fragments that fuse together and collect in neurons, disrupting the normal function of cells and ultimately killing them. This causes the symptoms of Huntington’s Disease. As the mutated HTT gene is passed down, the amount of CAG trinucleotide repeats increases. A larger number of repeats causes early onset Huntington’s and a sooner appearance of symptoms. This is referred to as anticipation. 

    The diverse symptoms of Huntington’s Disease are what leads to many misdiagnoses in the early stages and why it took so long to be recognized as its own disease. George Huntington’s paper “On Chorea” focused mostly on chorea, which involves involuntary jerking or writhing movements, akinesia developing as the disease progresses, unusual or slow eye movements, trouble with walking and balance, dystonia, ataxia, trouble with speech, athetosis, and dysphagia, and weight loss. Mental health conditions include irritability, mood swings, social withdrawal, insomnia, fatigue, loss of energy, suicidal thoughts, OCD, mania, bipolar disorder, psychosis,  hallucinations, and paranoia. There are cognitive conditions as well, like, trouble organizing, trouble prioritizing and focusing on tasks, lack of flexibility and perseveration, lack of impulse control that can lead to violent outbursts, lack of awareness in one selves behaviors and ability, slowness in processing thoughts, seizures, trouble with driving, and trouble learning new information and memorization. These symptoms can get more intense when the person is nervous or distracted. Eventually, these symptoms get so bad that it is more closely categorized as dementia. 

    Many people with HD remain conscious of their environment and can express emotions. As it progresses, the patient will need more help and supervision. Ultimately, they will need help at all hours of the day. HD is not fatal in and of itself. Patients most commonly die from complications like physical injury from falls and accidents, malnutrition due to trouble feeding oneself, infections, typically pneumonia but others as well, choking, heart failure, seizures, and, due to the mental toll, 7-10% of HD patients commit suicide. The average lifespan of a person with Huntington’s is 10 to 30 years after a diagnosis.

    This disease, because of its diverse symptoms, takes a skilled eye to diagnose. In most cases, it can be done with a neurological exam and an analysis of the patient’s medical and family history. But in other cases, the patient might require genetic and blood tests and diagnostic imaging like an MRI, CT, PET scan, or EEG. A neurologist and neuropsychiatrist will perform these tests. There are many research studies underway to study Huntington’s and while we do not have a cure, we have a basic understanding of the disease, which means we are one step closer to long term treatments. Johns Hopkins, for example, has 4 ongoing studies: the Sage Studies: PERSPECTIVE Program, which is evaluating the safety and efficiency of the experimental drug SAGE-718 in adults with early Huntington’s Disease, the Generation HD2 tests, which is the second phase of tests on Tominersen in young adults with HD ranging from 25-50 years old. The HDClarity study, an observational study to collect cerebrospinal fluid in order to study biomarkers that influence HD’s pathophysiology and growth, and the Enroll-HD program, a registry for the Global Huntington Disease Cohort, providing vast information for future clinical research. These are just a few of the many programs dedicated to unlocking the mysteries of HD. The most promising fields are those studying biomarkers, like the HDClarity study, and stem cell research.

    There are many options for treatments that can help improve the quality of life for a person with HD. They will require more help as the disease progresses and a team of people to help them like a neurologist, psychiatrist, genetic counselor, physical therapist, occupational therapist, and a speech therapist. A counselor could also help the patient and their family members with the emotional toll. Medications can also be prescribed to ease symptoms and keep them functioning as long as possible. To treat chorea they could take deutetrabenazine, amantadine, tetrabenazine, or haloperidol. The latter two of which could also help deter hallucinations and delusions. To manage their emotions, they could be prescribed antidepressants like fluoxetine and sertraline, antipsychotic drugs like risperidone and olanzapine; however, some antipsychotic medications have side effects that could make chorea and akinesia worse, and mood stabilizing medications like lithium. Antidepressant and antianxiety medications are also commonly prescribed because there are high rates of depression and suicide amongst patients with HD. It is also recommended to maintain physical fitness because it is shown that patients who exercise regularly delay the symptoms of HD more than those who do not. Huntington’s, however, can be prevented by genetic counseling, prenatal testing, and in vitro fertilization, where an egg and sperm are fertilized in a lab and checked to see if it has Huntington’s disease. If it does not, it is then implanted back into the uterus. It is important to speak to a genetic counselor before having a child if you or your partner has HD or is at risk to develop symptoms. 

    An HD diagnosis is certainly not a death sentence. A person with Huntington’s can live a long, happy life. We now know so much about this disease that even George Huntington would not be able to believe. There are many options for every particular patient and every particular case. And as science and technology advances, so will we in our path to finding a cure for Huntington’s Disease.

    Glossary

    1. A CAG trinucleotide repeat is an unstable expansion of the DNA sequence “cytosine-adenine-guanine” (CAG) that codes for the amino acid glutamine, resulting in a long “polyglutamine” tract within a protein

    2. a situation where individuals who inherit a disease-causing genetic mutation do not develop the associated disease or condition

    3. Akinesia: become rigid (stiff) and move very little or not at all

    4. Dystonia: unusual fixed (unchanging) postures

    5. Ataxia: loss of coordination

    6. Athetosis: slow, involuntary, and writhing movements

    7. Dysphagia: difficulty swallowing

    8. Psychosis: losing some contact with reality

    9. Tominersen: a treatment for Huntington’s Disease that is under research and trials

    References

    U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2024, December 12). Huntington’s disease. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/disorders/huntingtons-disease 

    Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. (2024, April 25). Huntington’s disease. Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/huntingtons-disease/symptoms-causes/syc-20356117 

    Huntington’s disease: What is it? Cleveland Clinic. (2024, May 1). https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/14369-huntingtons-disease 

    Huntington’s disease. Johns Hopkins Medicine. (2024, June 6). https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/huntingtons-disease  

    U.S. National Library of Medicine. (2020, July 1). Huntington’s disease: Medlineplus genetics. MedlinePlus. https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/huntingtons-disease/  

    Huntington’s disease. ucsfhealth.org. (n.d.). https://www.ucsfhealth.org/conditions/huntingtons-disease  

    Huntington’s disease – symptoms, causes, treatment: Nord. National Organization for Rare Disorders. (2023, November 20). https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/huntingtons-disease/  

    What is Huntington’s disease? Huntington’s Disease Association – Home. (n.d.). https://www.hda.org.uk/information-and-support/huntingtons-disease/what-is-huntingtons-disease/  

    Huntington’s Disease Society of America. Huntington’s Disease Society of America – Family Is Everything. (n.d.). https://hdsa.org/  

    Durbach, N., & Hayden, M. R. (1993, May). George Huntington: The man behind the eponym. Journal of medical genetics. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1016378/#:~:text=Abstract,was%20later%20named%20after%20him  

    Squitieri, F. (2013). Numero verde huntington. LIRH. https://lirh.it/en/history-huntingtons-disease#:~:text=George%20Huntington%20  

    History of Huntington’s Disease – Huntington’s Disease Society of America. Huntington’s Disease Society of America – Family Is Everything. (2019, March 20). https://hdsa.org/what-is-hd/history-and-genetics-of-huntingtons-disease/history-of-huntingtons-disease/