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  • October Monthly STEM Recap: How’s It Falling?

    October Monthly STEM Recap: How’s It Falling?

    By Bela Koganti

    ~ 14 minutes

    This October, STEM has reached new heights in astronomy, medicine, and awards. So, here’s an outline of what you need to know to stay informed.

    October 1: Enceladus

    Enceladus / NASA Science ©

    Saturn already has the highest number of known moons in our solar system, with 250, but it could also become the only planet with a habitable moon. Greedy, right? The 2005-2017 Cassini-Huygens mission to Saturn revealed clefts in the surface of Enceladus (one of Saturn’s moons) that shoot out water vapor ‘plumes’ into space as a ring (dubbed the E-ring) that circles Saturn. These clefts are believed to receive their water from an ocean below Enceladus’ surface. When the Cassini spacecraft flew through the plumes as they sprayed, it collected ice grains. Since the mission, scientists have been researching these grains, and they’ve found that Enceladus’ plumes hold carbon-containing molecules like aliphatic, heterocyclic esters, alkalines, ethers, ethyl, possibly nitrogenic, and possibly oxygenic compounds. They published their most up-to-date findings this October 1. 

    To break all this down, these carbon-containing molecules basically mean that the moon Enceladus might have the potential to house life. But don’t get too excited— it’s also possible that these molecules only become organic due to radiation, where ions in Saturn’s magnetosphere chemically react with the E-ring particles. To find out the truth, the European Space Agency might send an orbiter to Enceladus to sample fresh ice. Their orbiter wouldn’t arrive till 2054, so I suppose we’ll just cross our fingers till then. 

    October 3: From Type A to Type O

    We all know and love universal blood type O, but what about those who actually have it? For kidney transplants, type-A positive, -B positive, and -AB positive patients can receive their own respective type and type-O; however, type-O patients can only receive type-O kidneys. Thus, when these other patients receive type-O kidneys, people with type-O lack donors, end up waiting two to four years longer for their kidneys, and often die during the wait. Oh, and let’s not forget that type-O patients comprise over half of the kidney waiting lists!

    Scientists from the University of British Columbia have been tirelessly studying this catastrophe for over a decade, and they published their first successful transplant this October 3. They managed to place two reactive enzymes in a type-A kidney so that the kidney changed to universal type-O. Sugars that coat organs’ blood vessels determine blood type, so they created an enzyme reaction to strip away the defining sugars. While past conversions have needed live donors and changed antibodies within patients, compromising their immune systems, this new method changes the kidney itself and uses deceased donors.

    Blood Types / Australian Academy of Science ©

    So, here’s what happened in their transplant test:

    1. Scientists converted a type-A kidney using the enzymes
    2. Placed the kidney in a deceased recipient (with the family’s permission)
    3. Days 1-2: the body showed no signs of rejecting the kidney
    4. Day 3: a few of the type-A attributes reappeared, which is a slight reaction, but nothing as severe as in previous conversions
    5. The body showed signs of tolerating the kidney anyway
    6. Success!

    October 6: 2025 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

    This year, the 2025 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine has been awarded to three people! Mary E. Brunkow, Fred Ramsdell, and Shimon Sakaguchi earned it for their advancements on ‘peripheral immune tolerance’, the mechanism that ensures the immune system doesn’t hurt the body. Essentially, peripheral immune tolerance prevents humans from having all kinds of autoimmune diseases. However, prior to these three, scientists had no real understanding of why or how this system worked. Brunkow, Ramsdell, and Sakaguchi built on each other’s findings to discover ‘regulatory T cells’, the agents behind peripheral immune tolerance.

    Nobel Prize in Medicine / Lindau Nobel Laureates ©

    Here’s how they did it:

    1. 1995: Sakaguchi debunked the popular theory of ‘central tolerance’ by discovering a new group of immune cells. 
    2. 2001: Brunkow and Ramsdell explained why a certain type of mice was particularly defenseless against autoimmune diseases. They found that strain to have a mutation in what they dubbed their ‘Foxp3’ gene, and they showed that humans have a similar gene, which also causes an autoimmune disease when mutated. 
    3. 2003: Sakaguchi showed that the Foxp3 gene dictates the growth of the cells he previously found. These cells became known as ‘regulatory T cells’, and they supervise cells in the immune system as well as the immune system’s tolerance of the human body.

    All this is awesome, but let’s see how their discovery actually impacted modern medicine. Scientists have found that regulatory T cells can actually protect tumours from the immune system, so, in this case, they are looking for a way to dismantle the cells. However, to combat autoimmune diseases, scientists can implant more regulatory T cells into the body to help prevent the immune system from attacking the body. So, just as Ann Fernholm proclaimed, “they have thus conferred the greatest benefit to humankind.”

    October 7: 2025 Nobel Prize in Physics

    Get this: another trio received the 2025 Nobel Prize in Physics! The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences bestowed the honor onto John Clarke, Michel H. Devoret, and John M. Martinis for their experiments demonstrating quantum physics within a larger system. Quantum physics, or quantum mechanics, allows tunneling, which is when particles pass through barriers. Normally, the effects of quantum mechanics become negligible once they start working with large particles, but Clarke, Devoret, and Martinis showed that tunneling can still happen in a larger system.

    Nobel Prize in Physics / Lindau Nobel Laureates ©

    Just like with our last trio, here’s how they did it: 

    1. 1984-1985: They experimented with passing a current of charged particles through a controlled circuit containing superconductors. They found that the multiple particles acted like one large particle when going through the superconductor. The quantum part of this was that the system used tunneling to go from zero-voltage to a voltage. So, they concluded that quantum mechanics can still cause tunneling in a macroscopic system.

    And why do we care? Well, Olle Eriksson, the Chair of the Nobel Committee for Physics, said, “It is wonderful to be able to celebrate the way that century-old quantum mechanics continually offers new surprises. It is also enormously useful, as quantum mechanics is the foundation of all digital technology.” I don’t know about you, but I think I’ll take his word for it.

    October 8: 2025 Nobel Prize in Chemistry

    Our LAST Nobel Prize trio of October comes in Chemistry! Susumu Kitagawa, Richard Robson, and Omar M. Yaghi received the 2025 Nobel Prize in Chemistry from the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for their ‘metal-organic frameworks (MOFs)’. These frameworks are from their new molecular construction, where carbon-based molecules link together metal ions so that the two form MOFs, which are essentially porous crystals. Scientists can then manipulate these MOFs to take in and guard particular substances. MOFs can also create chemical reactions and direct electricity. So, with these MOFs, scientists can design materials with particular functions of their choosing.

    Nobel Prize in Chemistry / Lindau Nobel Laureates ©

    You know the drill– here’s how they did it:

    1. 1989: Robson began testing the properties of atoms by combining copper molecules with four-pronged molecules, and this created porous crystals similar to MOFs. However, these MOF impersonators were unstable and needed someone to fix them.
    2. 1992-2003: Enter- Kitagawa and Yaghi. From his experiments, Kitagawa concluded that MOFs could be changed and modified as gases could run through them. Then, Yaghi made a stable MOF and showed that they could be manipulated to have new properties.

    Since their discoveries, scientists have made tons of their own unique MOFs, each equipped to solve a different problem. We can thank MOFs for giving us a safer Earth. I mean, any kind of chemical substance that can make clean water, grab carbon dioxide from the air, or produce water from desert air sounds like a good one to me. 

    October 11: The Surprising Link Between COVID-19 and Anxiety

    Covid. The word that teleports Gen-Z right back to online school in pajamas, Roblox, and Charli D’Amelio. We all know and hate it, but did we realize that it might be affecting future generations who weren’t even alive in 2020? 

    A study published on October 11 revealed that male mice who contracted COVID-19 birthed children with more anxiety-like behaviors than those of uninfected mice’s children. Basically, COVID-19 changes RNA molecules in the male’s sperm, which then dictates his children’s brain development. In female offspring specifically, their brain’s hippocampus region, which deals with behaviors including anxiety and depression, was altered. The authors of the study believe that these changes may cause increased anxiety levels.

    Okay, okay. Remember: this study was done on mice, not humans. More research is needed to see if humans will experience similar effects, but for now, we’re safe.

    October 12: Light Years Away

    “A long time ago in a galaxy far, far away…” Wait, what? A long time ago? Evidence suggesting that the closest alien civilization may be 33,000 light-years away did come out this October 12, but for the estimate to be feasible, the civilization would need to have already existed for at least 280,000 years. Yeah, that feels like a long time ago. And don’t worry about the far, far away part– I’d call 33,000 light-years pretty far. 

    At a recent meeting in Helsinki, research was shown indicating such a possibility. Here’s the criteria for a planet to have extraterrestrial life and actually sustain itself:

    1. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (so photosynthesis can work and support life)
    2. An atmosphere of at least 18% oxygen (complex animals need more oxygen, and there must be enough oxygen for fire because blacksmithing must happen to technologically advance)
    3. Average lifetime of about 10 million years (so they can exist at the same time as us)
    4. Already existed for at least 280,000 years (so civilization can develop and they can exist at the same time as us)

    Keeping these in mind, scientists have concluded that if there is an alien civilization existing at the same time as us in the same galaxy, it would have to be at least 33,000 light-years away. To put that into perspective, our Sun is about 27,000 light-years away from us. Yeah. Pretty far.

    October 20: Enteral Ventilation

    Sometimes, CPR isn’t enough to save respiratory failure. Then, patients turn to mechanical ventilation. But sometimes mechanical ventilation is too much, and the lungs end up even further damaged. Enteral ventilation, however, may just be the sweet spot. Enteral ventilation is a practice where perfluorodecalin, an exceptionally oxygen-soluble liquid, is administered through the intestine to deliver oxygen to the body while the lungs heal. Published on October 20, the first in-human study of enteral ventilation succeeded and was demonstrated to be safe. The only side effects were bloating and stomach pain, but those quickly resolved, and perfluorodecalin concentrations nearly disappeared from the bloodstream (a good thing!). 

    After this safe and tolerated success, more studies on enteral ventilation will soon develop, and lungs everywhere may be saved.

    October 20: CI Chondrite on the Moon

    Before we get into any of this moon stuff, you may be wondering what in the world (or should I say galaxy) CI Chondrite is. I’m here to help! CI Chondrite, a porous and the most water-dense meteorite, generally breaks before it can reach Earth because its properties make it so crumbly. CI Chondrite actually makes up less than one percent of all meteorites on Earth. That means it also barely ever reaches the moon. However, during their Chang’e-6 mission published on October 21, the China National Space Administration found traces of CI Chondrite dust on the moon.

    A Chondrite Meteorite

    Here’s how they did it:

    1. They looked at thousands of fragments from the Apollo Basin, a sub-basin in the South Pole-Aikten Basin that acts as a hotspot for debris since it covers one-fourth of the moon.
    2. They looked for pieces with olivine, a mineral normally in meteorites. 
    3. Then, they analyzed the olivine pieces and found seven with properties identical to CI Chondrite
    4. When analyzing, they found that the pieces did not have the chemical ratios expected for lunar debris.
    5. However, they realized that the seven fragments’ ratios did align with those of a CI Chondrite asteroid that crashed, melted, and solidified on the moon early in the solar system’s history.

    With these discoveries, the team found the first solid evidence that CI Chondrite once hit the moon and that CI Chondrite can be preserved after such a crash. Actually, they found that CI Chondrite could comprise up to 30 percent of the Moon’s meteorite debris. Additionally, their study provided evidence to help back up the theory that CI Chondrite once created water and volatiles on the Earth and Moon. More research is needed to see if it’s really true, but those missions will now be much easier with the China National Space Administration’s new process to find CI Chondrite.

    October 27: Back to the Basics

    Nope, not like the song. On October 27, in the Astrophysical Journal Letters, scientists described their findings of what they believed to be Population III stars, one of the first groups of stars in the galaxy. With the James Webb Space Telescope, they pinpointed them in LAP1-B, a cluster of stars 12 billion light-years away from Earth. Scientists believe Population III stars are some of the first stars made after the Big Bang, and they have a unique property of being a billion times brighter than and a million times the mass of our Sun. 

    Here’s why they believe their discovered stars to be Population III:

    1. Emission lines on the stars’ spectra indicated high-energy photons, which are consistent with Population III stars.
    2. Their spectra showed them to be extremely large.
    3. Their masses aligned with astronomers’ guesses for those of Population III stars.
    4. They were in LAP1-B, whose properties agree with the criteria for Population III.
      1. It’s a low hydrogen and helium environment.
      2. Its temperature can support star formation.
      3. It’s a low-mass cluster, and it had few large stars before those of Population III.
      4. It meets mathematical criteria for forming stars and keeping them alive.

    Seems pretty feasible, right? Anyways, these scientists were the first to find a group of stars that meets all criteria for being Population III, and these ancient stars can actually explain the galaxy’s construction and development. That’s all for STEM this October, but don’t worry, because this November’s looking like a great one.

    References

    Cooper, K. (2025, October 2). Saturn’s moon Enceladus is shooting out organic molecules that could help create life. Space.com. https://www.space.com/astronomy/saturn/saturns-moon-enceladus-is-shooting-out-organic-molecules-that-could-help-create-life 
    Europlanet. (2025, October 12). Closest alien civilization could be 33,000 light years away. Science Daily. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2025/10/251011105533.htm 
    Fernholm, A. (2025, October 6). Popular science background: They understood how the immune system is kept in check. Nobel Prize. https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2025/10/popular-medicineprize2025-2.pdf 
    The Florey. (2025, October 11). COVID-19 causes changes in sperm that lead to increased anxiety in offspring. The Florey. https://florey.edu.au/news/2025/10/covid-19-causes-changes-in-sperm-that-lead-to-increased-anxiety-in-offspring/ 
    Howell, E. (2017, September 15). Cassini-Huygens: Exploring Saturn’s system. Space.com. https://www.space.com/17754-cassini-huygens.html 
    Howell, E. (2025, October 27). James Webb telescope may have found the first stars in the universe, new study claims. Live Science. https://www.livescience.com/space/cosmology/james-webb-telescope-may-have-found-the-universes-first-generation-of-stars 
    Kungl. Vetenskaps-Akademien. (2025, October 7). Press release (Nobel Prize in Physics 2025). Nobel Prize. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2025/press-release/ 
    Kungl. Vetenskaps-Akademien. (2025, October 8). Press release (Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2025). Nobel Prize. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/2025/press-release/ 
    Med. (2025, October 20). Safety and tolerability of intrarectal perfluorodecalin for enteral ventilation in a first-in-human trial. Cell. https://www.cell.com/med/abstract/S2666-6340(25)00314-9 
    Nobelförsamlingen. (2025, October 6). Press release (Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2025). Nobel Prize. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2025/press-release/ 
    Starr, M. (2025, October 21). China brought something unexpected back from the far side of the Moon. Science Alert. https://www.sciencealert.com/china-brought-something-unexpected-back-from-the-far-side-of-the-moon 
    University of British Columbia. (2025, October 3). UBC enzyme technology clears first human test toward universal donor organs for transplantation. Eurek Alert. https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1100223 
  • Would you still love me if I were a worm?

    Would you still love me if I were a worm?

    By Michelle Cheng

    ~12 minutes

    How Scientists are Using Worms to Learn About Humans

    Worms and humans could not possibly be any more different. And yet, scientists have been studying C. elegans (caenorhabditis elegans) to learn more about the human body over 70 years. These unassuming worms have aided in groundbreaking findings in medicine for human diseases such as Alzheimer’s, AIDS, and stroke.

    What makes C. elegans so valuable is not its complexity, but rather its simplicity. Because so many of its biological pathways are conserved in humans, this worm provides a uniquewindow into the fundamental processes of life, including cell division, gene regulation, neural signaling, and aging. With a transparent body, rapid life cycle, and a genetic makeup that mirrors much of our own, C. elegans has become an essential organism in modern biomedical research. Understanding how scientists use these worms can help us appreciate not just what we’ve already learned, but also the vast potential that still lies ahead.

    What is C. elegans?

    C. elegans is a free-living nematode that has become one of the most important model organisms in research. It measures approximately one millimeter in length and naturally lives in temperate soil environments, where it feeds on bacteria like e. coli. It is non-parasitic and exists in two sexes: hermaphrodites, which are capable of self-reproduction, and males, which occur at a less than 0.1% chance under normal conditions. The hermaphroditic reproductive mode allows for the maintenance of isogenic populations, which is advantageous for genetic studies.

    Anatomy of an adult C. elegans hermaphrodite / EnVivo Biosystems ©

    The adult C. elegans hermaphrodite has exactly 959 somatic cells while the adult male C. elegans has exactly 1,031 somatic cells. The worm’s relatively simple anatomy includes muscles, a nervous system, a digestive system, a reproductive system, and an excretory system. The organism develops through four larval stages before reaching adulthood, with a complete lifecycle taking just two to three weeks under laboratory conditions.

    The life cycle of C. elegans / National Institute of Health ©

    Genetically, C. elegans has a compact genome consisting of about 100 million base pairs across six chromosomes. It was the first multicellular organism to have its entire genome sequenced in 1998 in a project led by John Sulston and Bob Waterstons. Its genome is highly amenable to manipulation using a variety of modern techniques.

    Why do scientists study C. elegans specifically?

    First introduced into studies by Sydney Brenner in the 1960s to study neurological development and the nervous system, the nematode proved itself in the lab with its unique combination of genetic, anatomical, and practical features that make it exceptionally suitable for biomedical research. 

    Remarkably, around 60-70% of human disease-associated genes have counterparts in the C. elegans genome, making it an incredibly valuable model for studying human biology. Many genes responsible for critical cellular functions are evolutionarily conserved between worms and humans. Therefore, scientists can manipulate the function of these genes in C. elegans to study their roles in disease without the complexity or ethical challenges of working with human subjects or higher animals like mice or primates. 

    Analogous counterparts of the human nervous systems in C. elegans / Taylor and Francis Online ©

    Adult hermaphrodites’ cells, which remain the same in every single  worm, each of which has been identified and mapped, allowing for detailed tracking of development, differentiation, and cellular processes. Its transparent body enables real-time visualization of internal structures, including neurons, muscles, reproductive organs, and digestive tissues. The worm, which has a simple nervous system of only 302 cells, is one of the only organisms where every neural connection is known. Additionally, C. elegans has a short life cycle of two to three weeks and is easy to culture in large numbers, making it especially convenient for developmental and aging studies.

    How do scientists modify C. elegans in experiments?

    Scientists modify and study C. elegans using four primary methods: RNA interference (RNAi), CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing, transgenic techniques, and drug screening.

    Different modes of administration of dsRNAs for RNA interference / Biomed Central ©

    One of the most widely used techniques for modifying gene expression in C. elegans is RNA interference (RNAi). This method allows scientists to silence specific genes to observe the effects of their absence. In C. elegans RNAi can be easily administered by feeding worms with genetically engineered E. coli bacteria that produce double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) matching the gene of interest. Once ingested, the dsRNA activates the worm’s endogenous RNAi pathway, leading to the degradation of the corresponding messaging RNA and a reduction or elimination of the target protein. This method is highly efficient, non-invasive, and relatively easy to perform, making it ideal for large-scale genetic screens. Researchers can identify genes involved in key processes such as embryonic development, aging, metabolism, and neurodegeneration.

    The CRISPR-Cas9 system has revolutionized genetic research in C. elegans by enabling precise, targeted alterations to the genome. Scientists introduce a complex composed of the Cas9 enzyme and a guide RNA (gRNA) into the worm, which directs the Cas9 to a specific DNA sequence. Once there, Cas9 introduces a double-strand break in the DNA. The cell’s natural repair mechanisms then fix the break, and researchers can insert, delete, or replace specific DNA sequences. In C. elegans, CRISPR can create mutants mimicking  human disease alleles or study regulatory elements of genes. This method provides a level of control that surpasses RNAi, as it allows for permanent and heritable genetic modifications. Scientists often inject the CRISPR-Cas9 components directly into the gonads of adult hermaphrodites, ensuring that the genetic changes are passed onto the offspring.

    Image of the pharynx of C. elegans expressing GFP / Leica Microsystems ©

    Transgenic techniques in C. elegans insert foreign DNA into the worm’s genome to monitor gene expression, trace cell lineages, or study protein localization. One common approach is to fuse a gene of interest to a reporter gene such as green fluorescent protein (GFP). When this gene is expressed, the fluorescent tag can be visualized in living worms using fluorescence microscopy. This allows researchers to observe where and when specific genes are active, how proteins move within the cells, and how cells interact during development or disease progression. Transgenes are typically introduced via microinjection into the syncytial gonads of adult worms, leading to the formation of extrachromosomal arrays inherited by the next generation. Stable lines can also be created through CRISPR or chemical integration methods. These visual tools are particularly powerful due to the worm’s transparent body, which makes it possible to track fluorescent signals in real time throughout the entire organism.

    C. elegans is an excellent system for drug screening and environmental toxicology due to its small size, short lifespan, and genetic tractability. Researchers can test the effects of thousands of compounds quickly and cost-effectively. In these experiments, worms are exposed to chemical agents in liquid or on agar plates, and their survival, movement, reproduction, or specific cellular markers are measured to assess the biological impact. Using genetically modified strains that mimic human disease pathways, scientists can screen for drugs that alleviate symptoms or restore normal function. These tests provide an efficient first step in drug development, singling out promising candidates before moving onto mammalian models.

    The cell lineage and the programmed cell death in C. elegans / Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2002

    One of the most groundbreaking discoveries made using C. elegans was the genetic basis of programmed cell death, or apoptosis, a critical process in both development and disease. The research was led by Dr. H. Robert Horvitz at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Horvitz and his colleagues began studying cell death in C. elegans in the 1980s by tracing the fate of every cell in the worm’s body during development. They discovered that exactly 131 cells always die in the developing hermaphrodite and that this process was genetically controlled. Through genetic screening, Horvitz identified three core genes that regulated apoptosis: ced-3, ced-4, and ced-9. By inducing mutations in these genes, the researchers could either prevent or accelerate cell death in the worm. This revealed that cell death is not a passive consequence of damage, but rather an active, genetically programmed event. The mammalian counterparts of these genes, like caspases and BCL-2, were later discovered to play central roles in cancer, autoimmune diseases, and neurodegeneration, making this research foundational to modern medicine. Horvitz was awarded the 2002 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work along with Sydney Brenner and John Sulston.

    In addition, C. elegans has contributed to our understanding of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s. One major study was led by Dr. Christopher Link at the University of Colorado in the late 1990s. Link developed a transgenic C. elegans strain that expressed the human β-amyloid (Aβ) peptide in muscle cells. This is the same peptide that forms toxic plaques in the brains of Alzheimer’s patients. In the study, the researchers observed that worms expressing Aβ developed progressive paralysis as they aged, mimicking aspects of human Alzheimer’s pathology. They then used this model to screen for genetic mutations and chemical compounds that could suppress the toxic effects of Aβ. Their work identified several genes involved in protein folding and stress response that modified Aβ toxicity. This demonstrated that C. elegans could be used as a fast and cost-effective in vivo system for identifying genetic and pharmacological modifiers of Alzheimer’s disease. The worm model has since then been adapted by numerous labs worldwide to study tau protein aggregation and mitochondrial dysfunction, expanding our knowledge of neurodegenerative pathways.

    Micrographs showing visible signs of aging in C. elegans from a 2-day old adult (A) to a 7-day old adult (B) to a 13-day old adult (C) / Whitehead Institute ©

    Another major discovery made using C. elegans was the link between insulin signaling and lifespan regulation. Dr. Cynthia Kenyon at the University of California, San Francisco, led a series of experiments in the 1990s that transformed the field of aging research. Kenyon’s team discovered that a single mutation in the daf-2 gene, which encodes an insulin/IGF-1 receptor, could double the worm’s lifespan. They found that when daf-2 signaling was reduced, it activated another gene, daf-16, which promoted the expression of stress-resistance and longevity-related genes. To test this, Kenyon used genetic mutants and tracked their development and survival across generations. The C. elegans with the daf-2 mutation lived significantly longer than their wild-type counterparts and were more resistant to oxidative stress and heat. These findings provided the first clear evidence that aging could be actively regulated by specific genetic pathways rather than being a passive deterioration process. Later studies found that similar insulin/IGF-1 pathways exist in mammals, including humans, opening new therapeutic avenues for age-related diseases, diabetes, and metabolic disorders.

    So what does the future hold?

    The future of C. elegans in scientific research is remarkably promising, with its applications continually expanding as technology and genetic tools advance. With the rise of CRISPR-Cas9, optogenetics, and high-throughout screening techniques, researchers can now manipulate C. elegans with unprecedented precision to study complex biological processes such as epigenetics, gut-brain interactions, and real-time neuronal activity.
    In the coming years, C. elegans is expected to play an even greater role in personalized medicine and systems biology. Its potential as a predictive model for human gene function could aid in understanding the consequences of mutations found in patient genomes, leading to more tailored treatments. The worm’s short life cycle, fully mapped genome, and conserved biological pathways make it an ideal model for rapidly identifying new therapeutic targets and testing drugs, especially for age-related and neurodegenerative diseases. Despite its simplicity, this tiny nematode continues to open doors to complex human biology, proving that even the smallest organisms can have the biggest impact on science and medicine.

    References

    Alvarez, Javier, et al. “Modeling Alzheimer’s Disease in Caenorhabditis Elegans.” Biomedicines, vol. 10, no. 2, 1 Feb. 2022, p. 288, http://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/10/2/288/htm#B52-biomedicines-10-00288, https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines10020288.
    Apfeld, Javier, and Scott Alper. “What Can We Learn about Human Disease from the Nematode C. Elegans?” Methods in Molecular Biology (Clifton, N.J.), vol. 1706, 2018, pp. 53–75, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6391162/, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-7471-9_4.
    “C Elegans: The Early Worm Gets the Sequence.” Yourgenome.org, 2024, http://www.yourgenome.org/theme/ic-elegans-i-the-early-worm-gets-the-sequence/.
    “C. Elegans 101: A White Paper – InVivo Biosystems.” InVivo Biosystems, 26 Jan. 2024, invivobiosystems.com/disease-modeling/c-elegans-101-a-white-paper/.
    Chiu, Hui, et al. “C. Elegans as a Genetic Model to Identify Novel Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Nervous System Regeneration.” Cell Adhesion & Migration, vol. 5, no. 5, 2011, pp. 387–394, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3218605/, https://doi.org/10.4161/cam.5.5.17985.
    Edgley, Mark. “What Is Caenorhabditis Elegans and Why Work on It? – Caenorhabditis Genetics Center (CGC) – College of Biological Sciences.” Umn.edu, University of Minnesota, 2022, cgc.umn.edu/what-is-c-elegans.
    Félix, Marie-Anne. “RNA Interference in Nematodes and the Chance That Favored Sydney Brenner.” Journal of Biology, vol. 7, no. 9, 2008, p. 34, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2776389/, https://doi.org/10.1186/jbiol97.
    Link, C. D. “Expression of Human Beta-Amyloid Peptide in Transgenic Caenorhabditis Elegans.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 92, no. 20, 26 Sept. 1995, pp. 9368–9372, http://www.pnas.org/content/92/20/9368.short, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.92.20.9368.
    Riddle, Donald L, et al. “The Biological Model.” Nih.gov, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 2014, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK20086/.
    “The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2002.” NobelPrize.org, 2019, http://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2002/press-release/.
    Venkatesan, Arun, and Krishma Adatia. “Anti-NMDA-Receptor Encephalitis: From Bench to Clinic.” ACS Chemical Neuroscience, vol. 8, no. 12, 7 Nov. 2017, pp. 2586–2595, https://doi.org/10.1021/acschemneuro.7b00319.
    Wheelan, Sarah J, et al. “Human and Nematode Orthologs — Lessons from the Analysis of 1800 Human Genes and the Proteome of Caenorhabditis Elegans.” Gene, vol. 238, no. 1, Sept. 1999, pp. 163–170, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-1119(99)00298-x.
    “Whitehead Institute of MIT.” Whitehead Institute of MIT, wi.mit.edu/unusual-labmates-how-c-elegans-wormed-its-way-science-stardom.
    Wolozin, Benjamin, et al. “Watching Worms Whither: Modeling Neurodegeneration in C. Elegans.” Progress in Molecular Biology and Translational Science, vol. 100, 2011, pp. 499–514, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21377635, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384878-9.00015-7.
    “Wonderous Worms.” NIH News in Health, 3 July 2025, newsinhealth.nih.gov/2025/07/wonderous-worms. Accessed 1 Aug. 2025.
    Zhang, Siwen, et al. “Caenorhabditis Elegans as a Useful Model for Studying Aging Mutations.” Frontiers in Endocrinology, vol. 11, 5 Oct. 2020, https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2020.554994.
  • The Fall of the Big, Bad Boiler: The Latest Climate Technology Infiltrating New York City

    The Fall of the Big, Bad Boiler: The Latest Climate Technology Infiltrating New York City

    By Montserrat Tang

    ~ 9 minutes

    The Hot Hell of Boilers

    As someone born and raised in New York City (NYC), I can attest to the urgent need to upgrade the city’s climate control infrastructure. Current systems are outdated and hinder the city’s ability to meet emissions goals and address global warming; the encapsulation of this problem is the boiler. A staggering 72.9% of heating in NYC comes from fossil-fuel-burning steam boilers, one of the most carbon-intensive options available. Tenants of apartments pay for the maintenance of centralized boilers without control over the temperature, leading many to open their windows in winter to release excessive warmth. This heat and the fossil fuels used to produce it are wasted, highlighting the inefficiency and impracticality of NYC’s existing infrastructure. 

    Industrial boiler room / Controlled Combustion ©

    Even when this heat remains indoors, steam boilers are only about 80-85% efficient at burning fossil fuels. Up to a fifth of a boiler’s fuel does not generate usable heat, but burning it still releases vast quantities of pollutants like CO2, exacerbating climate change. Furthermore, boilers continue to lose efficiency during their lifetimes and require frequent maintenance and replacement. While steam boiler systems were revolutionary in the 19th century, they may now become obsolete as NYC implements a technology that could change how the world thinks about climate control.

    The Cool(ing) Mechanics of Heat Pumps

    Mechanics of an air source heat pump / U.S. Department of Energy ©

    The innovation behind heat pumps comes from the mantra of use what is given; instead of generating heat through combustion, they simply move existing warmth between two places. Most of these fully-electric pumps remain functional well below 0℃, even though it may seem like there is no warmth to be moved. This operative capacity allows them to have heating efficiencies of 300-500%! Because of this, International Energy Agency partner Yannick Monschauer estimates that “Heat pumps could bring down global CO2 emissions by half a gigaton by the end of this decade.”

    Heat pumps work by operating on the Second Law of Thermodynamics (SLOT), which states that heat will move from a hotter object to a colder one. In the wintertime, the pumps pull in outdoor air and blow it over fluids (called refrigerants) held in a closed-loop system. The air transfers warmth to the cold refrigerants through SLOT, and the heated fluids turn into gas. Heat pumps can work in freezing temperatures because these refrigerants have such unusually low boiling points, allowing them to vaporize easily; one of them, Refrigerant 12, has a boiling point of just -21.64°F!

    The hot, gaseous refrigerants move into a compressor that compacts their molecules, making them even warmer. They then flow through a coil that exposes them to indoor air, and the refrigerants release their warmth inside through SLOT. As the refrigerants cool, they condense back into liquid and pass through an expansion valve, decreasing their temperature further. They move to an outdoor coil and are ready to restart the process, continuing to warm cold homes during the winter.

    Even more significantly, heat pumps have reversing valves that switch the flow of their refrigerants. These valves allow the pumps to cool homes by pushing out warm, indoor air in the summertime. Thus, heat pumps make air conditioners, boilers, radiators, and related piping unnecessary, freeing space and alleviating material and labour costs that typically get passed on to homeowners. 

    Heat pumps in NYC

    In 2024, NYC pledged to have heat pumps provide 65% of residential heating, air conditioning, and water-heating needs by 2030. This shift would drastically reduce the city’s carbon emissions from the climate control sector, which contributed to 10% of global energy-related CO2 emissions in 2021.

    This pledge is logical both environmentally and practically: having one heat pump replace two systems saves valuable space, lowers costly installation and maintenance fees, and reduces energy demands. The NYC government realized this potential and signed a $70,000,000 contract to install 30,000 window heat pumps in NYCHA buildings, better known as public housing. Two heating companies, Midea and Gradient, will provide these units.

    In late 2023, Gradient installed 36 preliminary test units in NYCHA buildings. Most NYC steam boilers, including those in NYCHA’s current system, are powered by gas with oil reserves in case of an emergency. Gradient found that their pump can lower tenants’ heating bills by 29-62% on moderate winter days compared to gas-powered boilers. Savings are as high as 59-78% compared to oil-burning boilers. In testimonials that Gradient collected, NYCHA tenants noted the heat pumps’ impressive air filtration, heating, and operational capabilities. Midea conducted similar tests and soon plans to release its heat pump for public purchase.

    The Cold Drawbacks of Heat Pumps

    Although technological faults remain, NYC is continuing its plans to install and promote heat pumps to replace its intensive, outdated systems. For one, Midea’s upcoming pump will cost ~$3,000 per unit, greatly exceeding the combined price of ~$460 for their bestselling, single-room heating and cooling systems. This is a misleading comparison, however, because heat pumps also act as heating systems. The technology can lower electricity and fuel bills over an extended period, but the current price point makes heat pumps an unaffordable investment for many households – despite government subsidies and incentives. Even the NYC government’s bulk order of Midea and Gradient pumps averages over $2,300 per unit.

    Furthering the inaccessibility of these systems, the most advanced, aesthetically pleasing, and apartment-friendly heat pumps can only heat and cool individual rooms. This means that multiple units must be purchased, installed, and powered to service a home, and each must be replaced about every 20 years. Still, NYC’s firm stance on heat pumps indicates the climate control systems’ proven efficacy, practicality, and sustainability.

    Heat Pumps Globally, and Plans for the Future

    While technological challenges remain, NYC is continuing to deliver on its pledges. This decision on heat pumps is being made throughout the United States (US). In 2022, heat pump sales in the US significantly outpaced those of gas furnaces (a type of central heating system particularly popular in North America). This lead has continued into 2025 as more people realize that the pumps can lower fossil fuel emissions and energy bills.

    This switch is not just happening in the US; countries worldwide are beginning – or continuing – to invest in these pumps. Sales in European countries have soared in the 21st-century, an accomplishment partly attributed to friendly government policy. The country with the most pumps relative to its population, Norway, has 632 heat pumps installed for every 1,000 households (the majority of these pumps service entire houses, unlike the Midea and Gradient systems discussed above). Despite this high ownership rate, 48 pumps were purchased in Norway for every 1,000 households in 2024.

    1990-2021 Heat pump sales in Europe, by technology / European Heat Pump Association ©

    In spite of these promising statistics, heat pump sales in most economies have either slowed or slumped in recent years – particularly in Europe. Analysts suspect this is due to high interest rates, rising electricity prices, low consumer confidence, and low gas prices. While this is discouraging, pump sales and ownership rates remain higher than they were several years ago.
    In 2023, New York Governor Kathy Hochul pledged to help the U.S. Climate Alliance (USCA) install 20,000,000 pumps across the U.S. The USCA is a coalition of 24 governors representing 54% of the United States population and 57% of its economy. The bipartisan group has successfully delivered on their promises of emissions reduction, climate resilience, economic growth, energy savings, and zero-carbon electricity standards that heat pumps are engineered to meet. 

    This coalition has proved that environmental action is popular, necessary, and possible. At a time when climate policy is under question, sustainable and feasible technologies – like heat pumps – need the investment of citizens, industries, and governments alike; no matter how small the scale.

    So, how can you help? Since 2022, the US government has given a federal tax credit to citizens who install efficient heat pumps. The Energy Efficient Home Improvement Credit provides eligible homeowners up to $2,000 annually. Combined with other energy-efficient credits, US citizens can regain up to $3,200 every year. These monetary incentives offer another reason to consider switching to heat pumps, and similar policies are being enacted worldwide.

    I am proud to live in a city that rewards and encourages the sustainability of citizens, corporations, and public works. As the severity and irreversibility of global warming loom, heat pumps offer us a breezy solution to polluting climate control systems. Eventually, NYC’s infamous boiler rooms and clanging pipes may become relics of the past.

    References

    About Us. (n.d.). United States Climate Alliance. https://usclimatealliance.org/
    Azau, S. (2025, July 3). Heat pump sales 14 times greater in lead countries. European Heat Pump Association. https://www.ehpa.org/news-and-resources/press-releases/heat-pump-sales-14-times-greater-in-lead-countries/
    Bray, T. (2021, October 7). How Do Heat Pumps Work? | Heat Pumps Explained. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iQaycSD5GWE
    DeJong, K. (n.d.). The Difference Between Heat Pumps and Air Conditioners – Comparing Heat Pump Mini Splits with Cooling Only Systems. eComfort. Retrieved July 31, 2025, from https://www.ecomfort.com/stories/1310-Comparing-Heat-Pump-Mini-Splits-with-Cooling-Only-Systems.html
    Demir, H., Ulku, S., & Mobedi, M. (2013, August). A review on adsorption heat pump: Problems and solutions. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223303816_A_review_on_adsorption_heat_pump_Problems_and_solutions
    Ferrell, M. (2024, May 28). How does an air conditioner actually work? – Anna Rothschild. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6sSDXurPX-s
    Ferrell, M., & Natividad, S. (2024, June 11). Why This Window Heat Pump Is Genius. Undecided. https://undecidedmf.com/why-this-window-heat-pump-is-genius/
    Gradient Transforms Public Housing HVAC at NYCHA. (2024, June 3). Gradient. https://www.gradientcomfort.com/blogs/news/how-gradient-is-transforming-public-housing-with-innovative-window-heat-pumps
    Heat pump. (2025, July 31). Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_pump
    Midea Packaged Window Heat Pump. (n.d.). Midea HVAC. Retrieved July 31, 2025, from https://www.mideacomfort.us/packaged.html
    New York City Climate Dashboard: Energy. (2024). NYC Comptroller. https://comptroller.nyc.gov/services/for-the-public/nyc-climate-dashboard/energy/
    New York State. (n.d.). Efficient and Emission-Free, Heat Pumps Are Gaining Popularity in New York and Beyond. New York State Energy Research and Development Authority. https://www.nyserda.ny.gov/Featured-Stories/US-Heat-Pump-Sales
    New York State. (2023). Recapping Climate Week 2023. New York State Energy Research and Development Authority. https://www.nyserda.ny.gov/Featured-Stories/Recapping-Climate-Week-2023
    New York State. (2023, September 20). Governor Hochul Announces Installation of Window Heat Pumps for New York City Public Housing Residents. Governor Kathy Hochul. https://www.governor.ny.gov/news/governor-hochul-announces-installation-window-heat-pumps-new-york-city-public-housing
    New York State & ENERGY STAR. (2024). 2024 ENERGY STAR Products Partner Meeting. New York State Energy Research and Development Authority. https://cdn.shopify.com/s/files/1/0558/4925/5070/files/NYSERDA_Room_Heat_Pump_Presentation_from_2024_ENERGY_STAR_Product_Partners_Meeting.pdf?v=1736361913United States Government. (2025, May 29). Energy Efficient Home Improvement Credit | Internal Revenue Service. IRS. https://www.irs.gov/credits-deductions/energy-efficient-home-improvement-credit
  • Cow Farts, Climate Change, and Coffee: The Unexpected Connection

    Cow Farts, Climate Change, and Coffee: The Unexpected Connection

    By Wanni Zhu

    ~10 minutes

    Though seemingly unrelated, cow farts, climate change, and coffee have unexpected connections. For starters, cow farts produce methane – and lots of it. In fact, a single cow can produce a massive amount of methane – usually 250-500 liters per day. Now, think of how many cows we have here on Earth (I’ll give you a hint: it’s 1.5 billion).  And while CO2 gets all the attention when it comes to climate change, methane has twice the effect on a per-unit basis.  But we can’t just blame climate change on the cows: other livestock also contribute to the greenhouse gases that warm our planet. Well, it’s a good thing that climate change is a widely known issue around the world, right? We know that these gases will cause the heating of the Earth, resulting in ice melting and oceans rising. However, while these problems may take years to manifest, other negative effects won’t be nearly as delayed. One impending problem is the devastation that this heat will bring to both weather patterns and crops. Warmer temperatures cause more evaporation, meaning more water in the atmosphere and more storms. Many plants, coffee included, can’t grow in these changing and unstable climates. And while scientists are doing all that they can to fix these problems, individual citizens are unlikely to act unless they understand the full extent of what is going on. 

    What Is Climate Change?

    Climate change is a universal issue backed by scientific evidence and recognized by most of the public. The Earth is warming, and rapidly at that. According to NASA, the average global temperature on Earth has increased by at least 1.1° Celsius (1.9° Fahrenheit) since 1880, and the majority of the warming has occurred since 1975, at a rate of roughly 0.15 to 0.20°C per decade. It may not seem like much, but the environment is not accustomed to adapting quickly, and if this goes on, the results could be devastating.

    Greenhouse Gases

    Greenhouse gases – let’s call them GHGs for short – are essential for our survival, but could very well be the key to our doom. The most common GHGs include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. They absorb heat from the Sun and trap the warmth, preventing it from escaping into space. It’s the reason why life on Earth is possible: just like their name, these gases basically function as the glass in a greenhouse, raising the temperature so that we can thrive.

    But greenhouses can also get too hot. The more gases in the atmosphere, the more effective the heat-trapping process is. This excess heat-trapping is precisely what has been occurring over the past few decades, especially since the Industrial Revolution

    Left: Radiative forcing relative to 1750 due to the long-lived greenhouse gases CO2, methane, nitrous oxide and the synthetic greenhouse gases, expressed as watts per metre squared. Right: Global mean CO2 concentration and global mean greenhouse gas concentrations expressed as CO2-e (ppm). CO2-e is calculated from the atmospheric concentrations of CO2, methane, nitrous oxide and the suite of synthetic greenhouse gases. / Bureau of Meteorology ©

    So, what is causing the surplus of GHGs warming our Earth?

    One cause is transportation, which accounts for 14% of GHGs. Cars, buses, trains, airplanes – most of them use gasoline, diesel, or jet fuel to function. Burning these materials releases many harmful gases, the most relevant of them carbon dioxide, methane, or nitrous oxide. In some countries, like the US, transportation may be the leading cause of GHG emissions. However, there are many ways to combat these effects. You’ve most likely heard that walking and public transportation will reduce emissions, and they can! Even electric vehicles will help if you’re using clean electricity. Additionally, biofuels and hydrogen can replace fossil fuels in aviation and shipping.

    Another significant cause is electricity and heat production, which accounts for a fourth of total GHGs alone. These processes still rely heavily on burning fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas. Now that more and more homes and buildings are being constructed, there is a higher electricity demand than before. As a result, more fuel is burned – unless we switch to cleaner sources such as wind, solar, or hydro power. Transmission losses (electricity lost as it travels over power lines) require extra generation, further increasing emissions. Therefore, improving efficiency in buildings and the power grid could reduce the demand and associated GHGs.

    Buildings can cause around 6-7% of GHG emissions. The production of materials like cement, steel, and aluminum all release gases such as carbon dioxide, and use the process of burning fossil fuels. According to the BBC, cement production contributes 8% of global GHGs. Not to mention, transporting those materials and the use of heavy machinery and equipment while building them also adds to emissions. 

    These are all large and well-known reasons that contribute to GHG emissions, so let’s take a look at something lesser known. Agriculture.

    What About Cows?

    Let’s be honest: your answer to the question about major sources of GHGs was probably not cows. But, in truth, these adorable creatures that we raise account for around 14.5 percent of greenhouse gases that warm our planet. Of course, it’s not cows alone: other livestock, including chickens, horses, pigs, and more, are all included in that percentage. We’re looking at cows specifically because a breakthrough with them could lead to resulting solutions with the other animals, and cows are large and easy to work with. 

    Cows make methane in two ways: through their digestive process and their waste.  They are part of a group of animals called ruminants, with four distinct stomach chambers. The first is called the rumen, a home for microorganisms that break down the starch and sugar from plants. The next chamber is called the reticulum, where hard-to-digest plant materials are stored. The next chamber is called the omasum, which mechanically breaks the food down further. Finally, the last chamber is called the abomasum, which absorbs the nutrients from the food. 

    In the rumen, a process called enteric fermentation takes place. This is where the previously stated microorganisms and bacteria break down complex carbohydrates and turn them into sugars. The resulting products include volatile fatty acids (used as a major energy source for the cows), as well as GHGs such as carbon dioxide and methane. The gases are released from the cows either as burps or farts.

    What Are We Doing About It?

    Trend Hunter / INTA ©

    Scientists are attempting to find the most effective solution to this large problem. There have been many different approaches to this issue, some of which are below.

    One method that has been used is seaweed in the cow feed. A 2018 study focused on mixing a seaweed species called Asparagopsis armata with hay and small amounts of molasses. Animal science professor Ermias Kebreab says they’re hoping that the seaweed can inhibit an enzyme that’s involved in producing methane in a cow’s gut, a chemical reaction discovered by researchers in Australia. After a day of eating this feed, the cow’s methane emission dropped by a drastic 50%. However, they also discovered a small dent in the amount of food consumed, as well as milk produced, due to the seaweed’s ocean smell. The next steps of this experiment are to find ways so the cows don’t notice the seaweed, and plan an experiment to use beef cattle instead of dairy cattle. Though there is still a long way before this can be implemented on a large scale, even the smallest start can lead to a bigger solution.

    Another study from 2019 discovered that selective breeding can lead to a “cleaner cow.”  Project’s leaders and co-author Professor John Williams says: “What we showed is that the level and type of methane-producing microbes in the cow is to a large extent controlled by the cow’s genetic makeup.” By selecting cattle that produce less methane than their counterparts, it may be possible to create a livestock industry that generates fewer GHGs. However, the breeding will also depend on other desired characteristics, such as meat quality, milk, and disease resistance.

    Finally, Argentina’s National Institute of Agricultural Technology (INTA) created the cow-fart-backpack (the picture shown above). This device captures the methane from these cows through a tube in their skin, which scientists claim is painless. The gas is then condensed and ready to provide power for the farm. By utilizing this gas for power, farms would consume less purchased gas and thereby reduce the total emissions.

    Where Does Coffee Come In?

    Even with all these solutions, climate change is still one of the biggest issues out there. One common outcome that you may have heard of is the rising ocean levels. Because of the rapid heating, the northern and southern reaches of the planet are warming faster than any area on Earth, with the temperatures there rising twice as much as elsewhere. This damages the fragile ecosystems there, leaving less space for animals such as polar bears, seals, and penguins to venture. Not only that, but the sheer amount of ice that is melting each year has increased ocean levels drastically. According to NASA, the ocean levels have risen 10.1 centimeters since 1992. 

    But there’s another effect that’s less heard of. Agriculture will also be greatly impacted by climate change, as some plants need very specific temperatures and weather conditions to grow. 

    Let’s take a closer look at coffee.

    Some plants need very specific temperatures and weather conditions to grow, and now that it’s all changing, the locations where the plants grow would need to change with it. For example, the coffee plant grows in temperatures of around 15-24 C, or 60-70 F. Areas such as Hawaii, Africa, and Brazil are all large coffee exporters, but if the temperatures keep rising, coffee would cease to grow in those places. Coffee plants are highly sensitive to temperature and moisture changes, and stress leads to lower yields and flavor quality. But, it’s okay, right? We can just plant coffee in different areas that are now suitable for coffee growth!

    Not quite. Coffee takes 3-4 years to grow, and needs to be processed after. Processing plants will take even longer to build, not to mention the cost and GHG emissions. So, in that time, global coffee supply shortages would lead to higher coffee prices, affecting consumers and businesses. Millions of jobs in farming, processing, transport, and retail depend on coffee, leading to unemployment in producing regions. Countries that rely on coffee exports would suffer major losses in GDP and stability.

    Now think of this on a large scale. Not just coffee, but other plants as well. The world would be in chaos: jobs lost, prices increased drastically, and businesses shut down. These are the results of climate change.

    Conclusion

    Ultimately, climate change is affecting our world fast. With the temperatures rising each year and GHG emissions growing, the world is in dire need of a solution. Though there isn’t a single “correct” fix to this problem, everything that we do to prevent it counts. The effects of climate change can be disastrous – environments are being destroyed, oceans are rising, and plants are dying. But…if everyone helps, if everyone contributes, and understands just how dangerous and volatile climate change can be…perhaps we can prevent the problem that we are causing in the first place.

    References

    Center for Climate and Energy Solutions. 2019. “Main Greenhouse Gases | Center for Climate and Energy
    Solutions.” Center for Climate and Energy Solutions. June 6, 2019.
    https://www.c2es.org/content/main-greenhouse-gases/.
    NASA. 2022. “World of Change: Global Temperatures.” Earth Observatory. NASA Earth Observatory. 2022. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/world-of-change/global-temperatures.
    Okshevsky, Mira. 2020. “Cows, Methane, and Climate Change.” Let’s Talk Science. March 15, 2020. https://letstalkscience.ca/educational-resources/stem-in-context/cows-methane-and-climate-change.
    “Potential for Reduced Methane from Cows.” 2019. ScienceDaily. 2019. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/07/190708112514.htm.
    Rodgers, Lucy. 2018. “Climate Change: The Massive CO2 Emitter You May Not Know About.” BBC News, December 17, 2018. https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-46455844.
    “Surf and Turf: To Reduce Gas Emissions from Cows, Scientists Look to the Ocean.” n.d. NPR.org. https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2018/07/03/623645396/surf-and-turf-to-reduce-gas-emissions-from-cows-scientists-look-to-the-ocean.
    “The Causes of Climate Change.” Edited by Kalina Velev. NASA. October 23, 2024. https://science.nasa.gov/climate-change/causes/.
  • The Quantum Encryption Crisis

    The Quantum Encryption Crisis

    By Aashritha Shankar

    ~18 minutes

    “Some experts in the field predict that the first quantum computer capable of breaking current encryption methods could be developed within the next decade. Encryption is used to prevent unauthorized access to sensitive data, from government communications to online transactions, and if encryption can be defeated, the privacy and security of individuals, organizations, and entire nations would be under threat.” – The HIPAA Journal

    Introduction

    The cybersecurity landscape is facing a drastic shift as the increasing power of quantum computers threatens modern encryption. Experts predict a quantum D-day (Q-day) in the next 5-10 years, when quantum computers will be sufficiently powerful to break through even the strongest of cybersecurity mechanisms. Meanwhile, few companies have begun to prepare against the threat, developing quantum resistant cybersecurity methods. However, to fully combat the threat, we need to act now.

    Encryption Today

    Modern cryptography is dominated by two major algorithms that transform ordinary text into ciphertext:

    1. Rivest-Shamir-Adleman (RSA)

     Dating back to 1977, the RSA algorithm relies on the factoring of large numbers. RSA can be separated into two parts, a private and public key. The public key, used for encoding, is a pair of numbers (n, e)where n is the product of 2 large prime numbers (p•q=n). The value of e can be any number that is co-prime to (p-1)(q-1), meaning that the GCF of (p-1)(q-1) and e is 1. The private key (d), used for decoding, is the reciprocal of the least common multiple of (p-1)(q-1) and e and can also be found by solving the equation 1= d • e • (p-1)(q-1) for d. 

    For decades, RSA has provided security for digital data because large scale of (n, e) numbers in addition to the variability of e means that it is nearly impossible to decipher (p, q) from (n, e). However, quantum computing brings forth the ability to quickly factor large numbers, allowing (p, q) to be determined from just the public key. 

    2. Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC): 

    Since 1985, ECC algorithms have been favored over RSA’s due to their greater complexity and faster encryption, with ECC’s capabilities proving to be up to ten times faster.  ECC algorithms use an elliptical curve of the form y2=x3+ax+b over a finite field of not necessarily real numbers (Fp). A field Fp includes numbers from 0 to p-1,  where p is prime. 

    Figure 1: The elliptic curve 
    Figure 2: The elliptic curve over F11

    For the purpose of illustration, let us take the elliptical equation y2=x3+13 and a field F11. Figure 1 shows the elliptical curve while figure 2 shows the solutions to y2 =x3+13 (mod 11). The order of the curve is the number of points, including the arbitrary one at infinity, that satisfy the equation over a specific field (12 points in figure 2). The private key is some value k between 1 and the order of the curve. The public key can be calculated by taking one of the points, called the generator point (G), and multiplying it by k (kG). This system then encrypts the information using the public key (kG) and can only be decrypted by those who know k. 

    For example, let us take a value of k=5 and the point (9,4) as the generator point (G). When we multiply 5G, we are given the point (9,7), which would be the public key. However, just given the 2 points, it is extremely difficult to find the value of k. 

    ECC algorithms have long been considered nearly unbreakable due to the elliptic curve discrete logarithm problem , or the ‘ECDLP’. The ECDLP is a mathematical problem that asks: Given two points (P, Q) on an elliptic curve, what operation or algorithms could be used to find the specific constant k such that k multiplied by P equals Q?

    The key issue in solving this lies in point multiplication, where a tangent line is drawn to a point on the elliptical curve (P) as part of the operation. Wherever that line intersects the elliptical curve again is point Q’. When Q’ is reflected across the x-axis of the equation (not necessarily y=0),  the result is  Q which equates to 2P. This process is continued  until KP is reached.  While it is straightforward to find Q given P and K, it is nearly impossible to find K given P and Q because there is currently no known inverse operation to undo, or solve for the coefficient in point multiplication.

    Ultimately, RSA and ECC algorithms are what encrypt all of digital data and communication. They keep everything secure from classified government data to something as simple as a text message. Encryption allows private information to remain private and large national or international systems to continue functioning. It acts as a barrier against bad actors looking to hack or exploit this private data. Without encryption, there would be no safeguard for any data. Imagine if everything you ever put on  a device, whether private photos or bank information, suddenly became public. You would no longer be able to trust digital privacy and safety if these algorithms were to fail.

    A Brief History of Quantum

    Timeline of quantum / Quantum computing review / Fiveable ©

    To understand the momentous advancements in quantum computing, it is important to take a step back and examine the field’s origins as well as how quantum mechanics have evolved over time. Written in 1900 by Max Planck, the ‘Quantum Hypothesis’ explored the idea that rather than the conventionally accepted continuously flowing energy, energy was actually emitted in non-connected packets called quanta. His work laid the foundation for an exploration into what has become the field of quantum mechanics. Both Einstein’s 1905 work on the Photoelectric effect and Niels Bohr’s 1913 work on the atom further supported this claim by suggesting quantum leaps and the particle-like behaviors of a photon.

    In 1927, Heisenberg formulated his uncertainty principle, which stated that it is impossible to simultaneously know the position and the speed of a particle with perfect accuracy. Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen each published various works in 1935, questioning quantum mechanics via entanglement, or the influence of the state of one particle on the state of another simultaneously over great distances. Recent works have shown that entanglement can connect particles even between a satellite and the Earth.  John Bell later proved entanglement by conducting experiments in search of violations of the Bell inequalities in 1964.

     In 1926 Schrodinger created a system of wave equations that accurately predicted the energy levels of electrons in atoms. Neumann built on this alongside Hilbert’s work to create the mathematical framework for quantum mechanics, formalizing quantum states and creating a method to understand the behavior of quantum systems. In the 1940s Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga developed their theory of Quantum Electrodynamics (QED) which described the interactions of light and matter. 

    The 1980 conference of physicists, mathematicians, and computer scientists was the turning point from quantum theories into quantum applications, laying the foundation for all of quantum computing. While the first working laser was created in the 1950s, quantum mechanics was not explored much further untilPaul Benioff’s 1980 description of a quantum computer,the first step towards quantum computing.

    Quantum Computing: What is it and how does it work?

    Figure 3: Entanglement of 2 particles / Quantum explained / NIST ©
    Figure 4: Superposition with and without measurement / Quantum explained / NIST ©

    Quantum computing is based on two key principles:

    1. Superposition: The state of being in multiple states or places at once. Superposition is mostly commonly seen with overlaps of waves, but at a quantum level can be understood as a particle being in both state 1 and state 0 at the same time. However, when measured these particles must settle at either state 1 or state 0. The most commonly known analogy to explain this is the Schrodinger’s cat analogy: If you were to put a cat inside of a box with a substance that has an equal chance of killing or not killing the cat within an hour, then after one hour you could say that the cat is both dead and alive until you measure it, at which point it must be either dead or alive.
    2. Entanglement: A phenomenon by which two particles become connected such that the fate of one affects the other, irrespective of the distance between the two. Prior to any measurement, two particles will always be in a state of superposition, meaning that the particles can be in both state 0 and state 1 at the same time. However, when measured, the state of one particle will directly affect the state of the other. This principle was proven by John Bell via the Bell inequalities.

    Quantum computing allows storage of more information and more efficient processes, creating opportunities to infinitely increase the rate at which many modern machines work. While they face setbacks in these developing stages, they make it possible to perform multiple simultaneous operations rather than being limited by the tunnel effect that limits most modern machines to straightforward operations.

    Quantum systems use qubits as the fundamental unit of information transfer instead of the traditional bit. Qubits allow for the superposition of ones and zeros making it possible for quantum computers with very few qubits to perform billions of operations per second, over a million times faster than the best computers on the market today. In addition, the entanglement of multiple qubits means that information capacity grows exponentially rather than linearly.

    Compare and Contrast: Quantum Computers vs. Traditional Computers

    The Quantum Threat to Cryptography

    While current computers may not be strong enough to carry out an attack on cryptography, the emerging field of quantum computing poses a risk to all of modern encryption.

    Is the threat just theoretical?

    Even as an emerging technology, quantum computing poses a very real threat to cryptography. While many people would be more than willing to write it off as a threat of the future, that future may be closer than you believe. Quantum computing has shown its strength through many algorithms which could potentially result in the compromisation of sensitive data.

    The most prominent algorithm in regards to cryptography is Shor’s ‘Factoring Algorithm’ from 1994. Specifically, Shor’s Factoring Algorithm (SFA) is a major threat to RSA cryptography systems. As I mentioned earlier, RSA systems rely on the creation of large numbers as the product of two prime numbers, basing security over the inability to efficiently factor those numbers.

    According to Thorsten Kleinjung of the University of Bonn, it would take around two years to factor  N = 135066410865995223349603216278805969938881475605667027524485 14385152651060485953383394028715057190944179820728216447155137368041970396419174 304649658927425623934102086438320211037295872576235850964311056407350150818751067 6594629205563685529 475213500852879416377328533906109750544334999811150056977236 890927563  with under 2 GB of memory.

    Shor’s Algorithm could exponentially speed this up by working as follows:

    1. Start with the large number (N) and a guess (g). If g is a factor of N or shares a factor with N then we have already found the factors. 
    2. If g is foreign to N, then we use the property that for any 2 prime numbers (a,b) there exists one power (n) and one multiple (m) such that an= mb+1. Applying this here we get gn= mN + 1. We can further rewrite this as (gn/2-1)(gn/2+1)= mN. We can now change our objective from searching for values of g to searching for values of n. 
    3. This is where quantum computing makes a vital difference. By testing many possible values of n, the quantum system starts in a superposition of states. After attempting to solve for n using the above equation (mod N), we begin to take advantage of the fact that if gx mod(N) = r  then gx+pmod(N) =r if p is the period of the equation ( gp=1). When we utilize superposition, we test to see what values of x produce the same remainder, as the distance between those x values will be the period. 
    4. We can derive from this the frequency (f=1/p)
    5. Here we can apply a Quantum Fourier Transform (similar to a classical Fourier Transform): When we absorb all the constructive and destructive interference of the superposition, 1/p is the remaining frequency. 
    6. Now that we have a candidate for p, we calculate our best guess for gp and iterate as necessary to correct quantum error.

    Aside from algorithms, many corporations have made recent advancements towards building quantum computers as well. As recently as June 2025, Nord Quantique, a Canadian startup, announced their breakthrough ‘bosonic qubit’ which has built in error correction. This creates the potential to produce successful, encryption breaking 1000-qubit machines by 2031, far more efficient than the previously estimated 1 million-qubits.

    The ‘Harvest Now, Decrypt Later’ Tactic

    Another major reason why quantum mechanics is a threat to cryptography includes the ‘harvest now, decrypt later’ (HNDL) tactic.  As the predicted Q-day nears (2035), threatening actors have begun to collect and store encrypted data, with the goal of decrypting it in the future with sufficiently powerful quantum machines. The attackers may not be able to decrypt the data, but they can intercept communications to steal encrypted data.

    While it is easy to dismiss these attacks as something that could only be effective on nation-state levels, this assumption only feeds a false sense of security. For bad actors, corporate information could enable them to threaten economic chaos and large-scale disruptions. In fact, experts believe that these attacks have become increasingly focused on businesses as they hold the people’s data and the power to create mass economic instability.

    Matthew Scholl, Chief of the Computer Science at NIST described the threat by saying,

    “Imagine I send you a message that’s top secret, and I’ve encrypted it using this type of encryption, and that message is going to need to stay top secret for the next 20 years. We’re betting that an adversary a) hasn’t captured that message somehow as we sent it over the internet, b) hasn’t stored that message, and c) between today and 20 years from now will not have developed a quantum machine that could break it. This is what’s called the store-and-break threat.”

    The most concerning aspect of these HNDL attacks is that it is nearly impossible to know when your data has been stolen, until it comes into effect with the rise of quantum computing. By then, the damage will be irreversible. While not all data will be of high value over a decade from now, attackers are threatening specific data that they believe will hold long-term value. 

    Over the past 10 years, incidents have arisen that resemble HNDL attacks:

    • In 2016, Canadian internet traffic to South Korea, was being rerouted through China
    • In 2020, data from many large online platforms was rerouted through Russia
    • A study by HP’s Wolf Security discovered that one third of the cyber attacks conducted by nation-states between 2017 and 2020 were aimed at businesses 

    Post Quantum Cryptography ( PQC)

    However, companies and nations have already begun to look into ways to protect data from quantum attacks. Post-Quantum encryption algorithms focus on encrypting data in a way that will be equally difficult for quantum machines to break as it is for the classic computer.

    The Deputy Secretary of US Commerce, Don Graves said,

    “The advancement of quantum computing plays an essential role in reaffirming America’s status as a global technological powerhouse and driving the future of our economic security. Commerce bureaus are doing their part to ensure U.S. competitiveness in quantum, including the National Institute of Standards and Technology, which is at the forefront of this whole-of-government effort. NIST is providing invaluable expertise to develop innovative solutions to our quantum challenges, including security measures like post-quantum cryptography that organizations can start to implement to secure our post-quantum future. As this decade-long endeavor continues, we look forward to continuing Commerce’s legacy of leadership in this vital space.”

    One example of a potentially powerful PQC algorithm is CRYSTALS-Kyber, which the NIST declared the best for general encryption in 2022. They added HQC to their list of PQC algorithms in 2024, giving us a grand total of five algorithms that have met the standard.

    The NIST has named their standards for PQCs and urges people to work towards incorporating them now, because the full shift to PQCs may take as long as developing those quantum computers will take. Their key goals in this endeavor are to not only find algorithms that are resistant to quantum computing, but to diversify the types of mathematics involved to mitigate the risk of compromised data. They search for algorithms that are both able to be easily implemented and improved so that they maintain a ‘crypto-agility’.

    Many companies support PQCs and believe that they will safeguard the future of cryptography. Whitfield Diffie, cryptography expert, explains that

    “One of the main reasons for delayed implementation is uncertainty about what exactly needs to be implemented. Now that NIST has announced the exact standards, organizations are motivated to move forward with confidence.”

    Companies such as Google, Microsoft, IBM, and AWS are actively working to develop better resistance to quantum threats, helping to build some of the most powerful PQC algorithms. IBM is currently advocating for a Cryptography Bill of Materials (CBOM), a new standard to keep tabs on cryptographic assets and introduce more oversight into the system. Microsoft has become one of the founding members of the PQC Coalition, a group whose mission is to step forward and provide valuable outreach alongside education to support the shift towards PQC as the primary form of encryption.

    While PQCs could be a valuable resource against quantum threats, there are still setbacks that make people question the validity of the whole effort. The Supersingular Isogeny Key Exchange (SIKE) algorithm, one of the NIST finalists for the PQC standard, failed due to a successful attack by a classical computer, rendering many of the fundamental mathematical assumptions false. In addition, many of these algorithms suffer due to a lack of extensive testing and uncertainty regarding how much quantum machines will actually be able to accomplish.

    Conclusion

    While the timeline of PQC development might be uncertain, it is imperative that we work now. Quantum computing is no longer a threat looming in the future, but a present reality with significant impacts.It is imperative  that we begin shifting towards these safer systems as a community. We cannot wait until the threat has come, we need to prepare now.

    Rob Joyce, the Director of the National Security Administration’s Cybersecurity has stated that,

    “The transition to a secured quantum computing era is a long-term intensive community effort that will require extensive collaboration between government and industry. The key is to be on this journey today and not wait until the last minute.”

    Above all, it is crucial to recognize the threat and take action. Educating the people is the first step towards group action. Let awareness be our first line of defense.

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