# Youth Stemline > Today's Science, Tomorrow's Scholars Public Ghost content for AI and LLM tooling. This file includes a bounded export of public pages first, then recent public posts. Append `.md` to any post or page URL to get the content in Markdown (for example, `/example-post.md`). ## Pages ### Our Mission URL: https://youthstemline.com/about/ Last updated: 2026-06-27T04:37:09.000Z Youth Stemline serves youth in the community through the publication of detailed, well-researched articles that increase access to STEM information. We operate on a youth-serving-youth**™** model, where the organization acts as a platform for peer discussion and engagement. As the world rapidly shifts around us, it is easier than ever to accidentally consume misinformation. Thus, Youth Stemline combats this with sources that remain factual while catering directly to teens. Our goal is for everyone to stay informed while remaining cognizant of what we can be doing to contribute to a brighter, healthier future. # Our Team Meet the Stem Scribes behind Youth Stemline [ Aravli Paliwal Founder & Editor-in-Chief ](https://youthstemline.com/aravli-paliwal/) [ Ronak Ramnani Co-founder ](https://youthstemline.com/ronak-ramnani/) [ Katherine Mao Co-founder ](https://youthstemline.com/katherine-mao/) [ Ariel Yuan Co-founder ](https://youthstemline.com/ariel-yuan/) ## Aashritha Shankar Aashritha Shankar joined Youth Stemline as a sophomore at the Hockaday School. At school she is very involved in the Math and Physics teams. Aside from that, Aashritha is also interested in engineering, economics, and AI. She loves problem solving and has been a competitive chess player for nearly a decade. ## Adeline Wirmani My name is Adeline Wirmani, and I am at The Hockaday School in the class of '29\. In school, I play the double bass in orchestra and play a large variety of sports including fencing, basketball, and running. Outside of school, I devote a lot of time to my family and friends as well as time to myself to both read and write. I also love board games and poker I'm a huge fiction reader, but also a non-fiction writer. Journalism is one of my biggest passions that I spend most of my time doing. Overall, I'm a really involved person and devoted writer. ## Adhya Rodda hi! my name is adhya rodda. i'm really passionate about everything philosophical and related to the brain and it drives a lot of my research. i love exploring different viewpoints and hence, am really interested in debate! ## Alan Chen Alan Chen joined Youth Stemline as a sophomore at Allen High School with an interest in computer science and writing. He was born in St. Louis before moving to Texas. In his free time, you can find him watching movies or going for a run. ## Amy Yan Hi, I'm Amy and I joined Youth Stemline as a sophomore at Hockaday. I’m very passionate about STEM, especially math. At Hockaday, I'm involved in extracurriculars like debate, Model UN, and Math Team. In my spare time, I also enjoy drawing, baking, and hanging out with friends. ## Aniela Coughlin Aniela Coughlin is a student at The Hockaday School, where she explores her passions in engineering and physics. She also runs cross country and track, and is part of her school’s robotics team. In her free time, she can often be found watching Formula 1 and supporting her favorite team, Mercedes. ## Annabel Hao Annabel Hao is a multifaceted writer, dancer, cellist, and student at the Hockaday School. She particularly enjoys writing critical essays that blend her passion for artificial intelligence with its broader societal implications. When she is not writing, Annabel loves to read and immerse herself in the worlds of historical fiction, dystopian, and mystery novels. ## Anya Jain Hi, I'm Anya Jain and I joined Youth Stemline as a a sophomore at the Hockaday School! I'm interested in many areas of STEM, specifically medicine, and I like biology, anatomy, and psychology. I like to try lots of different things so at school I'm in Writing Center, the Student Ambassador program, World Schools Debate, and more. Outside of school, I love volunteering, playing tennis, and hanging out with friends! ## Ayaana Joshi Hi, I'm Ayaana!! I currently attend Greenhill School in the class of 2028 with a passion for engineering and science! Some of my other interests include filmmaking, improv and theater, sketching and creating art, playing field hockey, and skateboarding. A lot of my hobbies revolve around some aspect of art, so I try to blend those elements into any engineering project I take on, making it more personal and authentic as an expression of myself - in essence, anytime creativity meets engineering. ## Bela Koganti Hi! I'm Bela Koganti, and I joined Youth Stemline as a freshman at The Hockaday School. I'm interested in medicine as I'd like to become a nurse, and I love learning about current events. In my free time, you can find me playing the harp, hanging out with my dog, staying active at the gym or fields, and spending time with my friends! ## Bella Portera My name is Bella Portera, and I joined Youth Stemline as a sophomore at The Hockaday School. I love to sing, act, and write. I am involved in Hockaday extracurriculars, serving as an HClub student ambassador, Writing Center intern, cross country runner, drama student, and Fourcast newspaper writer. Outside of Hockaday programs, I am a member of TACT for Planned Parenthood of Greater Texas (acting troop) and NCL East Dallas. I also play the piano, as I love music. I am also deeply interested in STEM topics and am excited to spread awareness and educate my peers through writing for Youth STEM Line. ## Brie Eisenberg Hi, I’m Brie, and I’m deeply passionate about all areas of STEM. Lately, I’ve been especially focused on exploring the scientific impacts of microplastics and their effects on human health and the environment. I am super passionate about the environment and looking to start a new project in the field. Outside of academics, I play volleyball for both my club and school teams. In my free time, I enjoy learning how to cook and teaching myself how to code. ## Camila Garcia Hi! I’m Camila Garcia and I joined Youth Stemline as a sophomore with a passion for biology and medicine. I’m a member of the Bio-Green Team, compete on my local speech and debate team, and stay involved in community service as well as other activities that allow me to connect with others. I hope to one day develop medicines and cures that make a real difference in people’s lives. When I’m not diving into science topics or writing, I love reading, cooking, playing tennis, and spending time with friends. ## Charlotte Lee Hi, my name is Charlotte, and I joined Youth Stemline as a sophomore! I am interested in aerospace engineering, aviation, physics, and mechanical engineering. I love playing soccer, volunteering, and working out. I also love listening to One Direction, and an item on my bucket list is to see each one perform live. ## Connie Zhao Connie Zhao joined Youth Stemline as a rising sophomore at The Hockaday School. She is an aspiring doctor interested in the fields of cardiology and neuroscience. At school, she is actively involved in HOSA, TSA TEAMS, Science Olympiad, and World Schools Debate. Outside of school, she enjoys listening to and composing music, playing the flute and piano, and hanging out with her friends. ## Dhyani Thakkar My name is Dhyani Thakkar and I currently attend Jasper High School, joining Youth Stemline as an incoming sophomore. My passions include music, public speaking, reading, writing and outreach. I've also been involved in science fairs for the past 3-4 years working on projects aiming to make a real life impact. Through Youth STEMline, I hope to continue making a difference while also collaborating with like-minded peers in this organization. ## Ellie Tran Ellie Tran joined Youth Stemline as a sophomore at The Hockaday School with a love for the field of dentistry, the exploration of Artificial Intelligence, and graphic design. Ever since 8th grade, she’s enjoyed creating films for school and independently. In and out of school, she also plays field hockey, a member of the Lonestar Field Hockey Club. She loves to casually paint and debate about which giant tech cooperation is best. ## Emory Daniel Hi! My name is Emory Daniel, and I joined Youth Stemline as a sophomore at Hockaday. I am very passionate about athletics and am part of my school's volleyball, swim, and softball teams. I love spending time in nature to hike, bike, or learn something new. I spend my time hanging out with my dogs, attending weekly Bible studies, and coaching a local swim team. ## Frances Wang Frances joined Youth Stemline as a sophomore at The Hockaday School. At school, Frances enjoys stage managing, dancing, and drill. Outside of school, Frances furthers her passion for dance, where she is a competitive dancer. ## Grace Liu Grace joined Youth Stemline as a freshman at the Hockaday School and enjoys endeavors in all things STEM. Going on her third year participating in FIRST robotics, she is currently a member on an award-winning FTC team outside of school. She is passionate about engineering, but also loves singing in choir and collecting squishmellows. ## Iliana Lega Hi! My name is Iliana Lega and I joined Youth Stemline as a freshman at Hockaday! I am super passionate about STEM and love working on science projects, as well as playing soccer as one of the co-captains for my club team. I'm also passionate about advocating for affordable housing in Dallas and am a Youth Ambassador for the Dallas Housing Coalition. I enjoy baking in my free time and studying at coffee shops! ## Isabel Lee My name is Isabel Lee and I joined Youth Stemline as a rising sophmore at the Hockaday School. There I participate on the Varsity field hockey, soccer, and track teams, as well as being a member of the Social Impact Board. My favorite pass times include playing field hockey, volunteering, and spending time with my friends. ## Isabella Silva Hello! My name is Isabella and I am a student at The Hockaday School and a certified Apprentice Beekeeper. In my free time, I enjoy reading about environmental issues and new scientific discoveries. At Hockaday, I participate in fencing and outside of school my main sport is Olympic weightlifting. Environmental issues are something I am very passionate about and I look forward to spreading awareness about them through Youth Stemline. ## Katherine Johnson Hello!! My name is Katherine Johnson, I joined Youth Stemline as a rising sophomore at Harmony School of Innovation. From a young age I have strived to become an emergency doctor and hope one day I'll be able to help many people. Outside of medicine I have many hobbies such as sports, reading, art, and I love spending time with family and friends! ## Kathleen Jiang My name is Kathleen Jiang and I love trying EXCITING things, taking EVERY opportunity I can get, and meeting NEW people! I love All food, exploring the world, and playing volleyball!!! I am on the Hockaday Debate team, Student Council, and Student Diversity Board! ## Kayla Zhang Hey y'all! I'm Kayla Zhang, and I joined Youth Stemline as a rising sophomore at the Hockaday School. In the STEM field, I'm interested in biology, math, and computer science. Outside of school, I enjoy painting and swimming. I also love to spend time with my friends and family! ## Magdalen Wright Magdalen Wright is a dedicated student with a deep passion for neuroscience and its relationship with human behavior. She actively participates in several extracurricular activities, including Science club, Alpha club, and Philosophy club. In addition to her academic interests, Magdalen enjoys competing in golf and bowling. Her curiosity for STEM subjects drive her to engage closely with the STEM community. ## Michelle Cheng Hi! My name's Michelle Cheng and I joined Youth Stemline as a rising sophomore at The Hockaday School. I'm on my school's drill and math team, as well as an intern in its writing center. Outside of school, I play piano, dance, and volunteer at my local animal shelter. Some of my favorite things to do are listening to music, reading the news, going out with friends, and learning covers of my favorite songs on the piano. ## Mira Mahishi Hello!! My name is Katherine Johnson, I joined Youth Stemline as a rising sophomore at Harmony School of Innovation. From a young age I have strived to become an emergency doctor and hope one day I'll be able to help many people. Outside of medicine I have many hobbies such as sports, reading, art, and I love spending time with family and friends! ## Montserrat Tang-Holmberg Hi, I'm Montserrat! I'm interested in all things STEM, but I usually focus on the topics of sustainability and climate change. I'm currently writing and reviewing for a few STEM publications, both for international journals and my school's publications. I'm always looking for new opportunities and experiences, so reach out if you ever need help or hear of something interesting! ## Navya Desai Navya Desai joined Youth Stemline as a rising sophomore at the Hockaday School. Fueled by a passion for merging creativity with STEM, Navya is an aspiring doctor. She’s involved with HOSA for future medical professionals, Model United Nations, and the Perot Museum volunteer community. Furthermore, She’s heavily involved in the performing arts, pursuing musical theatre and classical voice. Her background in the arts motivates her to find connections between the arts and the sciences through music therapy and research to prevent Alzheimer's and dementia through music. ## Stella Fish Hi! My name is Stella Fish. I joined Youth Stemline as a rising sophomore at the Hockaday School, and I love painting and creating art. I also love rowing on the Hockaday Rowing Team. I'm excited to start writing for Youth STEMLine! ## Summer Chen Summer joined Youth Stemline as a junior at Sevenoaks School in England exploring politics, philosophy, economics and global development. She is passionate about World Schools Debate and uses communication as a tool for global change. ## Tanvi Cherukuri Hi! My name is Tanvi Cherukuri and I currently attend the Hockaday School, where I take Journalism. Outside of school, I compete in sabre fencing and volunteer in my community. I’m interested in computational biology and have interviewed various healthcare specialists for HOSA. I hope to combine my skills in Journalism and STEM to explore new and complex ideas. ## Wanni Zhu Hi! I'm Wanni, and I joined Youth Stemline as a freshman at Hockaday. I'm extremely passionate about STEM, as I've been competing in FIRST for five years now. I am interested in AI, environmental engineering, sustainable inventions such as EVs, and psychology. Other than that, I love dancing, listening to music, and reading. Also, I can't pass up this opportunity to share my favorite quote - "Knowledge is knowing tomatoes are fruits. Wisdom is knowing that they don't belong on fruit salads." ## Zehaba Belachew Hey! I’m Zehaba. I’m super into biology, especially anything that involves DNA. I find its scientific potential memorizing. In the future, I hope to continue a career path in medicine. Also, I am big on law and justice, that’s another area I love diving into. At Hockaday, I participate in DECA and debate. Additionally, I have been a girl scout for the past 3 year! My main sport is rowing, which I started this year and am obsessed with. Outside of school, I like volunteering, especially if it involves children, and hanging out with my family. ### Our Mission URL: https://youthstemline.com/about-2/ Last updated: 2026-06-11T02:56:42.000Z Youth Stemline serves youth in the community through the publication of detailed, well-researched articles that increase access to STEM information. We operate on a youth-serving-youth**™** model, where the organization acts as a platform for peer discussion and engagement. As the world rapidly shifts around us, it is easier than ever to accidentally consume misinformation. Thus, Youth Stemline combats this with sources that remain factual while catering directly to teens. Our goal is for everyone to stay informed while remaining cognizant of what we can be doing to contribute to a brighter, healthier future. ## Meet Our Team [![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/img_1284-edited.jpg)](https://youthstemline.com/aravli-paliwal/) # [Aravli Paliwal Founder, Editor-in-Chief](https://youthstemline.com/aravli-paliwal/) [![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/ronak-arvind-ramnani-headshot-3.png)](https://youthstemline.com/ronak-ramnani/) ### [Ronak Ramnani](https://youthstemline.com/ronak-ramnani/)[ ](https://youthstemline.com/ariel-yuan/)[C*hief Technology Officer,* ](https://youthstemline.com/ronak-ramnani/)*[Social Media Manager](https://www.instagram.com/youthstemline/?ref=youthstemline.com)* [![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/group_2img_240_1hdr-1-2.png)](https://youthstemline.com/ariel-yuan/) ### [Ariel Yuan](https://youthstemline.com/ariel-yuan/)[ ](https://youthstemline.com/ronak-ramnani-chief-technical-officer/)[Co-Founder](https://youthstemline.com/ariel-yuan/) [![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/resized_img_2049-1.png)](https://youthstemline.com/katherine-mao-editor-in-chief/) ### [Katherine Mao Co-Founder](https://youthstemline.com/katherine-mao-editor-in-chief/) --- [![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/aashu-1.png)](https://youthstemline.com/aashu-shankar/) ### [Aashritha Shankar ](https://youthstemline.com/aashu-shankar/) [Section Editor, ](https://youthstemline.com/aashu-shankar/)[Mathematics](https://youthstemline.com/math-article/)[ ](https://youthstemline.com/aashu-shankar/) [![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/img_3049-charlotte-lee-1.png)](https://youthstemline.com/charlotte-lee/) ### [Charlotte Lee Section Editor](https://youthstemline.com/charlotte-lee/), [Engineering](https://youthstemline.com/engineering/) [![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-2-7.png)](https://youthstemline.com/bela-koganti-stem-scribe/) ### [Bela Koganti Section Editor](https://youthstemline.com/bela-koganti-stem-scribe/), [Monthly Stem Recap](https://youthstemline.com/monthly-stem-articles/) [![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/katherine-1.png)](https://youthstemline.com/katherine-johnson/) ### [Katherine Johnson **Stem Scribe*](https://youthstemline.com/content/files/2026/06/katherine-johnson.html) ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/untitled-1.png) ### [Aniela Coughlin **Stem Scribe*](https://youthstemline.com/aniela-coughlin-stem-scribe/) [![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-alan-chen-1.png)](https://youthstemline.com/alan-chen/) ### [Alan Chen **Stem Scribe*](https://youthstemline.com/content/files/2026/06/alan-chen.html) [![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/iliana-lega-w-1001.png)](https://youthstemline.com/iliana-lega-stem-scribe/) ### [Iliana Leg](https://youthstemline.com/iliana-lega-stem-scribe/)a Stem Scribe [![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/pic-with-kayla-kathleen-jiang-1.png)](https://youthstemline.com/kathleen-jiang-stem-scribe/) # 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[Bella Portera **Stem Scribe*](https://youthstemline.com/content/files/2026/06/bella-portera.html) [![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/dsc08062-stella-fish-1.png)](https://youthstemline.com/stella-fish/) # [Stella Fish Stem Scribe](https://youthstemline.com/stella-fish/) [![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/img_1161-maggie-wright-1.png)](https://youthstemline.com/magdalen-wright/) ### [Maggie Wright **Stem Scribe*](https://youthstemline.com/magdalen-wright/) ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/stemscribe-1.png) # Kavya Chava **Stem Scribe* [![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/mira-1.png)](https://youthstemline.com/mira-mahishi/) ### [Mira Mahishi **Stem Scribe*](https://youthstemline.com/mira-mahishi/) [![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/dhyani-1.png)](https://youthstemline.com/dhyani-thakkar/) # [Dhyani Thakkar **Stem Scribe*](https://youthstemline.com/dhyani-thakkar/) [![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/anya-1.png)](https://youthstemline.com/anya-jain/) ### [Anya Jain **Stem Scribe*](https://youthstemline.com/anya-jain/) [![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/navya-1.png)](https://youthstemline.com/navya-desai/) ### [Navya Desai **Stem Scribe*](https://youthstemline.com/navya-desai/) ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/img_9082-amy-1-1.png) ### [Amy Yan **Stem Scribe*](https://youthstemline.wordpress.com/wp-admin/post.php?post=931&action=edit&ref=youthstemline.com) [![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-4.png)](https://youthstemline.com/annabel-hao-stem-scribe/) ### [Annabel Hao](https://youthstemline.com/annabel-hao-stem-scribe/) **[Stem Scribe](https://youthstemline.com/annabel-hao-stem-scribe/)* [![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-6-1.png)](https://youthstemline.com/adeline-wirmani-stem-scribe/) ### [Adeline Wirmani](https://youthstemline.com/adeline-wirmani-stem-scribe/) **[Stem Scribe](https://youthstemline.com/adeline-wirmani-stem-scribe/)* ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/stemscribe-4.png) ### \--- **Stem Scribe* [![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-3-1.png)](https://youthstemline.com/ellie-tran-stem-scribe/) ### [Ellie Tran](https://youthstemline.com/ellie-tran-stem-scribe/) **[Stem Scribe](https://youthstemline.com/ellie-tran-stem-scribe/)* [![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-4-1.png)](https://youthstemline.com/frances-wang-stem-scribe/) ### [Frances Wang](https://youthstemline.com/frances-wang-stem-scribe/) [Stem Scribe](https://youthstemline.com/frances-wang-stem-scribe/) [![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-5-2.png)](https://youthstemline.com/grace-liu-stem-scribe/) ### [Grace Liu](https://youthstemline.com/grace-liu-stem-scribe/) **[Stem Scribe](https://youthstemline.com/grace-liu-stem-scribe/)* ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/stemscribe-4-1.png) ### \--- **Stem Scribe* ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/stemscribe-4-2.png) ### \--- **Stem Scribe* ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/stemscribe-4-3.png) ### \--- **Stem Scribe* --- ## Our Approach At Youth Stemline, we adhere to a rigorous editorial process designed to ensure the accuracy, credibility, and authenticity of every article we publish. All content undergoes thorough review to verify that information is supported by scholarly sources, and we ensure these references are clearly cited within each piece. Youth Stemline maintains a zero tolerance policy toward plagiarism and inflammatory speech. Please note that the views and opinions expressed in articles represent those of the respective authors and do **not** reflect the official stance of Youth Stemline as an organization. ### Science Articles URL: https://youthstemline.com/science/ Last updated: 2026-06-11T03:19:18.000Z ## Featured Posts --- --- ## All posts ### Technology Articles URL: https://youthstemline.com/technology/ Last updated: 2025-06-30T02:43:06.000Z ## Featured Posts --- ## More posts ### Medicine Articles URL: https://youthstemline.com/medicine/ Last updated: 2025-06-30T02:42:52.000Z ## Featured Posts --- --- ### Home URL: https://youthstemline.com/home/ Last updated: 2026-06-13T05:10:14.000Z --- # Latest Articles --- ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/impressions.png) ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/countries.png) \*Statistics from [JetPack](https://jetpack.com/?ref=youthstemline.com) --- ## More posts ### Engineering Articles URL: https://youthstemline.com/engineering/ Last updated: 2026-06-11T03:23:14.000Z ## Featured Posts --- ## ALl posts ### Aravli Paliwal | Founder, Editor-in-chief URL: https://youthstemline.com/aravli-paliwal23232323/ Last updated: 2026-06-26T03:36:28.000Z ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/aravli-paliwal-jpg.png) Aravli is a student at The Hockaday School passionate about science, technology, and medicine. She is the founder and editor-in-chief of Youth Stemline, where she and the team are dedicated to turning complex scientific ideas into accessible and engaging articles. Lately, she has been exploring the medical field through shadowing, telemedicine work, and attending seminars at UT Southwestern. In her free time, you can find Aravli out with her friends or walking her crazy dog, Pickles. ### Ronak Ramnani | Chief Technology Officer, Social Media Manager URL: https://youthstemline.com/ronak-ramnani99r/ Last updated: 2026-06-26T03:59:11.000Z ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/ronak-arvind-ramnani-headshot-3-w-1000.png) Ronak is a sophomore at Greenhill School with a passion for technology and web design. Born in NYC and raised in Oregon before moving to Texas, he brings a unique perspective to advanced video production, world schools debate, and photography. ### Katherine Mao | Co-Founder URL: https://youthstemline.com/katherine-mao-editor-in-chief/ Last updated: 2026-06-11T02:56:11.000Z ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/resized_img_2049-1-2-w-1000.png) Katherine is a sophomore at the Hockaday School with a strong passion for STEM, notably in the fields of medicine and sustainability. She has pursued these interests through international innovation competitions, independent research, and volunteer work at Parkland Health. At school, she is actively involved in DECA, HOSA, and World Schools Debate. In her free time, she enjoys reading, painting, and playing the violin. ### Stella Fish | Stem Scribe URL: https://youthstemline.com/stella-fish/ Last updated: 2026-06-11T02:56:08.000Z ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/dsc08062-stella-fish-1-5-w-1024.png) Hi! My name is Stella Fish. I am a rising sophomore at the Hockaday School, and I love painting and creating art. I also love rowing on the Hockaday Rowing Team. I'm excited to start writing for Youth STEMLine! ### Charlotte Lee | Stem Scribe URL: https://youthstemline.com/charlotte-lee/ Last updated: 2026-06-11T02:56:09.000Z ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/img_3049-charlotte-lee-1-1-w-1000.png) Hi, my name is Charlotte, and I am going to be a sophomore! I am interested in aerospace engineering, aviation, physics, and mechanical engineering. I love playing soccer, volunteering, and working out. I also love listening to One Direction, and an item on my bucket list is to see each one perform live. ### Aashritha Shankar URL: https://youthstemline.com/aashritha-shankar/ Last updated: 2026-06-11T02:56:06.000Z ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/stemscribe-3-w-1024.png) aashritha bio ### Magdalen Wright | Stem Scribe URL: https://youthstemline.com/magdalen-wright/ Last updated: 2026-06-11T02:56:05.000Z ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/img_1161-maggie-wright-1-1-w-1000.png) Magdalen Wright is a dedicated student with a deep passion for neuroscience and its relationship with human behavior. She actively participates in several extracurricular activities, including Science club, Alpha club, and Philosophy club. In addition to her academic interests, Magdalen enjoys competing in golf and bowling. Her curiosity for STEM subjects drive her to engage closely with the STEM community. ### Kathleen Jiang | Stem Scribe URL: https://youthstemline.com/kathleen-jiang-stem-scribe/ Last updated: 2026-06-11T02:56:03.000Z ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/pic-with-kayla-kathleen-jiang-1-1-w-1000.png) My name is Kathleen Jiang and I love trying EXCITING things, taking EVERY opportunity I can get, and meeting NEW people! I love All food, exploring the world, and playing volleyball!!! I am on the Hockaday Debate team, Student Council, and Student Diversity Board! ### Wanni Zhu | Stem Scribe URL: https://youthstemline.com/wanni-zhu-stem-scribe/ Last updated: 2026-06-11T02:56:02.000Z ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/wannizhu-1-w-1000.png) Hi! I'm Wanni, and I'm a freshman at Hockaday. I'm extremely passionate about STEM, as I've been competing in FIRST for five years now. I am interested in AI, environmental engineering, sustainable inventions such as EVs, and psychology. Other than that, I love dancing, listening to music, and reading. Also, I can't pass up this opportunity to share my favorite quote - "Knowledge is knowing tomatoes are fruits. Wisdom is knowing that they don't belong on fruit salads." ### Montserrat Tang | Stem Scribe URL: https://youthstemline.com/montserrat-tang-stem-scribe/ Last updated: 2026-06-11T02:56:01.000Z ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/img_2088-momo-tang-holmberg-1-1-w-1000.png) Hi, I'm Montserrat! I'm interested in all things STEM, but I usually focus on the topics of sustainability and climate change. I'm currently writing and reviewing for a few STEM publications, both for international journals and my school's publications. I'm always looking for new opportunities and experiences, so reach out if you ever need help or hear of something interesting! ### Camila Garcia | Stem Scribe URL: https://youthstemline.com/camila-garcia-stem-scribe/ Last updated: 2026-06-11T02:56:00.000Z ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/a6f19e4b-6144-4eda-9ddf-0f25c67c9ce0-camila-garcia-1-1-w-1000.png) Hi! My name is Camila Garcia and I’m a rising sophomore with a passion for biology and medicine. I’m a member of the Bio-Green Team, compete on my local speech and debate team, and stay involved in community service as well as other activities that allow me to connect with others. I hope to one day develop medicines and cures that make a real difference in people’s lives. When I’m not diving into science topics or writing, I love reading, cooking, playing tennis, and spending time with friends. ### Brie Eisenberg | Stem Scribe URL: https://youthstemline.com/brie-eisenberg-stem-scribe/ Last updated: 2026-06-11T02:55:59.000Z ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/screenshot-2025-06-23-at-9-31-01-am-brie-eisenberg-1-1-w-1000.png) Hi everyone! My name is Brie, and I’m deeply passionate about all areas of STEM. Lately, I’ve been especially focused on exploring the scientific impacts of microplastics and their effects on human health and the environment. I am super passionate about the environment and looking to start a new project in the field. Outside of academics, I play volleyball for both my club and school teams. In my free time, I enjoy learning how to cook and teaching myself how to code. ### Mira Mahishi | Stem Scribe URL: https://youthstemline.com/mira-mahishi/ Last updated: 2026-06-11T02:55:58.000Z ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/mira.png) Hi, My name is Mira, and I am a sophomore at The Westwood School. I am planning to pursue a career in STEM, as I love anything science or math related and enjoy research. In my free time, I love to play volleyball, read, play the guitar, and hang out with my friends. ## Posts ### The Social Media Algorithm Explained URL: https://youthstemline.com/the-social-media-algorithm-explained/ Last updated: 2026-08-30T16:16:01.000Z By Aashritha Shankar \~ 5 minutes \~ --- The moment you open social media, your For You page is waiting, eerily curated to show you everything you *should* want to see. Is your phone psychic? Many of us conflate this effect to the social media “algorithm,” but how exactly does that algorithm work, and how does it know us *so well*? To answer this question, it is crucial to dissect the mathematics behind algorithmic systems. ## Graph Theory Graphs, at their core, are mathematical structures used to model relationships between objects. Every graph is composed of nodes (points) and edges (lines). However, the graphs that we are familiar with are wildly different from the graphs that support graph theory. In graph theory, these links don’t represent the transition from point to point, but instead they symbolize the connection of two distinct entities. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/08/data-src-image-0d733490-c91e-4f49-b682-27f1c6bc08eb.png) A Simple Graph / Introduction to Graph Theory / GeeksforGeeks In social media, graph theory is applied to demonstrate the connections between people or posts. Undirected graphs show connections regardless of power imbalances while directed graphs show the flow of power / viewership. Undirected graphs signify the connections of two people in an equivalent manner (ex. a friendship). On the other hand, directed graphs can be used to show how one person looks towards another (ex. an influencer). Furthermore, these edges can be weighted to show the relative strength of different relationships. Ultimately, these graphs can be used to find the underlying pattern that people are reduced to, weighting on all sorts of factors such as watch time , scroll frequency, etc. For example, if one person is consistently viewing another person’s content but the other person doesn’t interact with them, that would create a directed graph. Meanwhile, if two people are simply friends in an undirected graph, then, while they may view similar content, there is no imbalance in viewership generated by the algorithm. While this approach may seem infeasible at scale, the 1960s small world experiment by Stanley Milgram suggests that almost everyone on earth is connected by less than six acquaintances. While the research varies between five and seven steps, this theory allows a feasible map due to its boundedness, the quality of being finite. Because the distance between people isn’t as large as we would assume, these maps are applicable to both small and large scale social media platforms. Ultimately, these social media algorithms employ these simple maps within communities of like-minded individuals and connect them to one another creating an overall large map. ## Influencers Not only can these graphs show connections between people, but they can help understand the driving force in those connections. Are people viewing a post because they’re interested in the content itself or is there engagement because it’s being posted by an influencer? Through graph theory, the sheer number of edges adjacent to a person distinguishes a typical consumer from an influencer. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/08/data-src-image-5bda6f8c-2ff5-4ef1-8ec2-c0c85860fd9b.png) C looks like an influencer while D represents a typical consumer / pinniped.page Aside from furthering their content in the algorithm, these influencers also act as bridge nodes. Followers of the same influencer are now perceived to have a connection or similarity because of this bridge node. This plays into the creation of a small world on social media by effectively connecting people from a diverse range of backgrounds through a similar set of likes or dislikes. These bridges are also crucial for creating trends, as they are connected to such a large group of people. When multiple people who are connected to a certain bridge node engage in a trend, the trend is then directed towards everyone who engages with that bridge node. Because of the consistent push of this trend towards the bridge node, the algorithm believes that it is relevant to everyone who engages with that node. In doing so, it blasts this trend to a larger group of people who are all connected to this bridge node. ## Echochambers While this system can create many beneficial outcomes in terms of connectivity, it also risks creating echo chambers. These echo chambers are primarily generated through homophily, the mathematical tendency to cluster similar nodes. This is largely because users with similar ideologies are more likely to create edges with one another, while simultaneously avoiding people with opposing viewpoints because they appreciate wholly different content Over time, the topology of the graph shifts from a diverse field of connections between individual groups into large clusters of people who view similar content. Because the graph theory behind the system encourages content that maintains high levels of engagement, these algorithms effectively strain out diverse views from an individual’s recommended feed. This system creates a closed loop where the more content you view, the more similar content you are shown. This looks like a person who enjoys watching cat videos, continuing to see more cat videos, and never being exposed to anything different. Within these separated clusters, information travels much more effectively. This means that over 75% of content that a person sees is typically content that aligns with their views. However, echo chambers like these are net- harmful because people within them often become more polarized or extremist due to a lack of productive discourse and interaction with opposing perspectives. ## Conclusion In order to create a society in which people are able to contribute meaningfully to constructive conversations, it is important not to isolate people into echochambers. When viewing content on social media, it is vital that we stay open to different perspectives, and remember that just because we see one opinion, that does not mean that it’s the only opinion out there. --- ## References Ai, J., He, T., Su, Z., & Shang, L. (2022). Identifying influential nodes in complex networks based on spreading probability. *Chaos, Solitons & Fractals*, *164*, 112627\. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chaos.2022.112627](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chaos.2022.112627?ref=youthstemline.com) *Echo Chamber Effect | EBSCO*. (2021). EBSCO Information Services, Inc. | Www.ebsco.com. [https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/communication-and-mass-media/echo-chamber-effect](https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/communication-and-mass-media/echo-chamber-effect?ref=youthstemline.com) *Electronic Journal of Graph Theory and Applications (EJGTA)*. (2024). Ejgta.org. [https://www.ejgta.org/index.php/ejgta](https://www.ejgta.org/index.php/ejgta?ref=youthstemline.com) Gao, Y., Liu, F., & Gao, L. (2023). Echo Chamber Effects on Short Video Platforms. *Scientific Reports*, *13*(1). [https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-33370-1](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-33370-1?ref=youthstemline.com) Journal of Graph Theory. (2006). *Journal of Graph Theory*. [https://doi.org/10.1002/(issn)1097-0118](https://doi.org/10.1002/%28issn%291097-0118?ref=youthstemline.com) Kim, J., Jeong, S., Kim, J., & Lim, S. (2025). Bridges in social networks: current status and challenges. *PeerJ Computer Science*, *11*, e3122\. [https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.3122](https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.3122?ref=youthstemline.com) Penn, A. (2019, November 25). *Milgram’s Small-World Experiment: Connected by 6 Degrees*. Shortform Books. [https://www.shortform.com/blog/milgrams-small-world-experiment/](https://www.shortform.com/blog/milgrams-small-world-experiment/?ref=youthstemline.com) Putri, S. D. G., Purnomo, E. P., & Khairunissa, T. (2024). Echo Chambers and Algorithmic Bias: The Homogenization of Online Culture in a Smart Society. *SHS Web of Conferences*, *202*(1), 05001\. [https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/202420205001](https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/202420205001?ref=youthstemline.com) Travers, J., & Milgram, S. (1969). An Experimental Study of the Small World Problem. *Sociometry*, *32*(4), 425\. [https://doi.org/10.2307/2786545](https://doi.org/10.2307/2786545?ref=youthstemline.com) --- ### The Digitization of Misogynistic Beauty Standards in China URL: https://youthstemline.com/the-digitization-of-misogynistic-beauty-standards-in-china/ Last updated: 2026-07-31T23:04:21.000Z By Annabel Hao \~ 7 minutes \~ --- When I see my “raw” self, I see beauty staring back at me, but it’s obsolete beauty that in today’s beauty standards labels me as merely average-looking. As a young Chinese woman, I learned this the hard way. Whenever I wear shorts, my parents seem to always say: “妹妹，你看一下你的大腿有多粗.” (Daughter, look at how thick your thighs are.) When I forget to spread thick layers of sunscreen on my skin, my mom seems to always say: “妹妹，你会晒黑的.” (Daughter, you will tan and become dark-skinned.) Whenever I visit my relatives back in China, they seem to alway say: “乐乐你的眼经这么真么小?” (Annabel, why are your eyes so small?) And when my double eyelids finally formed at the age of 12, my grandparents congratulated me earnestly- apparently relieved that they no longer needed to buy double eyelid tape for me anymore, or worry about my “ugliness” anymore. Soon, the East Asian Beauty spectrum defined my own standard of beauty. I believed beauty meant an even skin complexion, pale and clear skin, an oval-shaped face, a V-shaped jaw, a narrow chin, pink lips, a well-defined Cupid’s bow, an obtuse jaw angle, a slim body figure, a small waist, square shoulders, defined collarbones, long legs, puffy aegyo-sal, double eyelids, a youthful appearance... the list goes on. I recall a specific moment from the age of six: my family was traveling in Shanghai, and my mom told me to pose for a photo. As any other six-year-old would, I smiled for the camera and ran to see the photo after my mom beckoned me forward with a look of satisfaction. She proudly handed me the phone to look, but what I saw was a heavily filtered face that I was not familiar with. It was like a factory-made version of myself that was cut and shaved and manufactured to perfectly reflect those beauty demands. My eyes were bigger, my face smaller, the tip of my nose thinner, nose bridge higher, philtrum shorter, and chin pointier. That was my first exposure to beauty filters and face-editing apps. I was six years old. It was obvious that my mom did not use the default camera app for my picture; instead, she used MeiTu - a popular Chinese beauty filter app that distorts and molds one’s features into a reflection of the beauty standards that define whether a female is attractive or not. These filters quickly spread to the Chinese influencer world, scaling the so-called 美女 经济 or beauty economy, which captures Chinese society’s significant emphasis on a woman’s appearance and how one’s beauty dictates their success. Consumer capitalism describes the manipulation of consumer demand to the advantage of the sellers, and this concept directly ties a woman’s career success to her physical appearance. Oftentimes, industries are based entirely around a woman’s image and beauty, and women in these industries view their youth and appearance as an asset to be maximized before it depreciates. When a woman’s economic mobility depends on her ability to appeal to the public, specifically male authority or patrons, the pressure to conform to beauty standards becomes a necessity rather than a personal choice. The beauty economy has existed in China across industries like sales, entrepreneurship, and entertainment for decades. However, platforms like Douyin, Xiaohongshu, and Meitu have effectively transformed the beauty economy into a global, digital market. Through live-streaming and short videos, everyday women can monetize their appearance via virtual “gifts” from viewers, sponsorships, and live-stream sales. This process birthed the concept “wanghong,” referring to the myriad of mainly female Chinese influencers who profit off of their own sexualization or beautification. Wealthy male viewers, often referred to as “big brothers” or “daddies” on platforms, spend massive sums of real money to buy digital gifts for female streamers. As a result, women in the wanghong economy feel compelled to mold their look in accordance with the male gaze, establishing the term “wanghonglian,” -or internet celebrity face- a standard facial model that many Chinese women seek to achieve. Many of the features that characterize a wanghonglian are only attained through plastic surgery or editing apps, leading to the popularization of beauty filters and cosmetic procedures among Chinese women. Filters on apps like Meitu or Douyin do not just smooth skin or fix the lighting; they restructure the face and shape features. These filters reinforce a homogenous and rigid aesthetic that calls for a face so “perfect” that one’s original face and features must be surgically or digitally carved to resemble artificial ideals: pale skin, huge double-eyelid eyes, a high nose bridge, and an extremely pointed, V-shaped chin. Furthermore, fixation on extreme slenderness in China and across East Asia places intense pressure on female influencers to participate and create viral challenges that flaunt their collarbones, measure their waist, and lengthen their legs. These beauty trends, combined with the growth of filters in social media have encouraged uncanny and homogenous female beauty standards. Rather than highlighting the beauty of uniqueness, this beauty culture has insinuated an ideal of sameness across the demographic of young women who are encouraged to get cosmetic surgery to optimize their “bodily capital” in an intensely competitive beauty economy. Evidently, the digital landscape for East Asian female influencers highlights the extreme convergence of beauty ideals, misogyny, and cultural fetishization in modern times. While social media platforms provide an opportunity for women to chase success and wealth, they also pressure women into rigid visual criteria, leaving these women uniquely vulnerable to dehumanization and sexualization from the public. Within platforms like Douyin and Xiaohongsu, female influencers are forced to navigate toxic double standards; they are encouraged to leverage their appearance but are simultaneously criticized for doing so. For example, live-streaming monetization heavily relies on viewers sending digital “gifts” that convert to cash, and as previously mentioned, this dynamic reinforces the “wanghong” concept, where female influencers are forced to satisfy the male-centric beauty ideals to succeed. Male patrons manipulate this dynamic to demand obedience and flirtation from female streamers. The moment an influencer asserts boundaries or refuses to perform, audiences frequently orchestrate massive online harassment campaigns, branding the woman a “lu cha biao” or green tea bitch- a term used to describe women who act innocent to get what they want. Additionally, the audience ironically harbors a deep resentment toward the very beauty filters and procedures they demand influencers to use. There is an entire subgenre of viral content dedicated to exposing what female influencers looked like before they received cosmetic surgery or when their beauty filters glitch. These exposures lead to violent body-shaming, punishing the influencer for failing to naturally embody an extreme standard that is impossible to achieve without technology. These trends only serve to emphasize the importance of a woman’s looks on social media, and it begs the questions when, how, and at what point can a woman’s safety, respect, and success no longer depend on her compliance with the male gaze? While it’s undeniable that men in East Asia experience similar pressures to fit into beauty ideals, the standards for women are arguably much harsher and much more compulsory. Moreover, female beauty standards are not limited to East Asia; around the world, women are expected to turn their bodies into an object that alters itself for societal demands. In China, the demand is pale, thin, and youthful. In the Western realm, the demand shifts towards plump lips, tan skin, and hourglass figures. Both require intense, expensive, and often painful physical alterations to achieve. Worldwide, female influencers face double standards. If they use their looks to build a successful platform online, they are dismissed as shallow, vain, or manipulative “clout-chasers.” If they refuse to conform to beauty standards, they are rendered invisible by an audience that prefers conventionally attractive bodies. Just like the live-streaming “gifting” culture in East Asia, Western platforms like OnlyFans, Twitch, and Instagram Live rely on wealthy patrons and parasocial relationships. Whether a woman is receiving gifts through livestreams in China or filming brand deals in America, the underlying structure is the same. Capitalism and patriarchy work hand-in-hand to ensure that a woman’s body remains a commodity used to build corporate wealth and status. Social media has not changed this historical power dynamic; it has simply digitized it and scaled it to a global level. --- ## **References** China Perspectives. (n.d.). China Perspectives \[PDF document\]. OpenEdition Journals. https://journals.openedition.org/chinaperspectives/pdf/6749 DiVA Portal. (n.d.). *DiVA Portal* \[PDF document\]. https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1964802/FULLTEXT01.pdf Honeysuckle Magazine. (n.d.). *Current beauty standards, plastic surgery, racist trends, and the role of social media influencers*. https://honeysucklemag.com/current-beauty-standards-plastic-surgery-racist-trends-and-the-role-of-social-media-influencers/ Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (n.d.-a). *Chinese philosophy*. https://iep.utm.edu/category/traditions/chinese/ Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (n.d.-b). *Gender in Chinese philosophy*. https://iep.utm.edu/gender-in-chinese-philosophy/ Monmouth University Library. (n.d.). *Influence*. Women's History Month Guides. https://guides.monmouth.edu/WHM/influence New Books Network. (n.d.). *John Osburg, Anxious wealth: Money and morality among China's new rich (Stanford UP, 2013)* \[Podcast episode\]. https://newbooksnetwork.com/john-osburg-anxious-wealth-money-and-morality-among-chinas-new-rich-stanford-up-2013-2 Osburg, J. (2013). *Anxious wealth: Money and morality among China's new rich*. Stanford University Press. https://www.sup.org/books/asian-studies/anxious-wealth PubMed. (2010). *PMID 21114079*. National Center for Biotechnology Information. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21114079/ PubMed Central. (2024). *PMC11144859*. National Center for Biotechnology Information. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11144859/ SAGE Reference. (n.d.). *Yin and Yang* \[PDF document\]. SAGE Knowledge. https://sk.sagepub.com/ency/edvol/download/gender/chpt/yinyang.pdf Taylor & Francis Online. (2025). *Pedagogy, Culture & Society*. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14681366.2025.2459653 Wikipedia contributors. (n.d.). *Chinese ideals of female beauty*. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved July 29, 2026, from[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese\_ideals\_of\_female\_beauty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese%5Fideals%5Fof%5Ffemale%5Fbeauty?ref=youthstemline.com) WRIT 150 at USC Fall 2020\. (2020, Fall). *Chinese epidemic: The thin ideal*. Medium.[ https://medium.com/writ-150-at-usc-fall-2020/chinese-epidemic-the-thin-ideal-260c639c692b](https://medium.com/writ-150-at-usc-fall-2020/chinese-epidemic-the-thin-ideal-260c639c692b?ref=youthstemline.com) Zenodo. (2020). *Record 4325856*.[ https://zenodo.org/records/4325856](https://zenodo.org/records/4325856?ref=youthstemline.com) --- ### The Golden Record: Earth's Time Capsule in Space URL: https://youthstemline.com/the-golden-record-earths-time-capsule-in-space/ Last updated: 2026-07-13T23:25:29.000Z By Prisha Sagar \~ 6 minutes \~ --- ## What message would you send if you had the chance to represent all of humanity to the universe? In 1977, NASA launched the fundamental ideas of life into the vast universe. The universe is defined as the entirety of all existence; this includes every concept known to man: life, matter, time, space, and energy. Meanwhile, the small 12-inch disk contains what we describe as life: the evidence of all living organisms. When NASA first launched the Golden Record into space, they had one main goal in mind: to “portray the diversity of life and culture on Earth” (NASA Science, 2025). To understand the message NASA hoped to send, we must first examine what the Golden Record contains, how it was intended to be used, and why it remains one of humanity's most remarkable achievements. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/07/data-src-image-07c6d53d-2a47-47d1-809b-b7640ad1eeab.png) Mounting of the Voyager Golden Record in 1977 / NASA / JPL-Caltech ## What is the Golden Record? Although the Golden Record spans only 12 inches in diameter, it holds an extraordinary collection of Earth's history, culture, and life. The disk contains exactly 155 images to demonstrate what life on Earth is like. These images include birth, scientific concepts, music, space, education, exercise, culture, evolution, buildings, shopping, traffic, airplanes, and technology. Together, they were chosen to showcase the many aspects of humanity and life on Earth to extraterrestrial life. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/07/data-src-image-caed0ae1-2832-4723-a9e4-ad29d7306546.png) ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/07/data-src-image-006dfb70-dead-414c-8036-667dd28787f6.png) ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/07/data-src-image-8667f51c-090f-40e7-80da-c216926a96f5.png) The designers of the Golden Record also selected a wide variety of sounds that they believed would depict the curious and intricate nature of humanity. They included animal sounds, 55 modern and ancient languages, weather, and music spanning different historical time periods. More specifically, the disc features whale noises, a baby crying, a heartbeat, and 90 minutes of music ranging from the medieval era to modern-day pop and jazz, all chosen to represent the diversity of life on Earth. ## ​A deep-dive into each side of the record So, how would extraterrestrial beings decipher how to play the record? The record is engraved with a series of step-by-step diagrams that explain how to play and decode its contents. The circle diagram represents the record itself and the correct positioning of the stylus—the small needle that reads the grooves of the record and converts them into electrical signals. Beneath the engraving of the record is a side view of it, depicting the same message in a different way. The top-left diagram is surrounded by binary numbers that translate to 3.6, the number of seconds required for one rotation of the record. Instead of human-made measurements, the plaque uses binary numbers that another civilization would be more likely to understand. These symbols represent the time required for the hyperfine transition of a hydrogen atom, a universal constant equal to about 0.7 billionths of a second. Meanwhile, the diagram below the circle is the side view of the record surrounded by binary numbers that indicate the total amount of time required to play the entire record (60 minutes). ![TThe diagrams on the upper right illustrate how to reconstruct the images stored on the record. ](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/07/data-src-image-ba6676ff-23b8-41c7-8529-d70902cda7cc.png) The diagrams on the upper right illustrate how to reconstruct the images stored on the record. The topmost diagram shows the signal that marks the beginning of each image, while the diagrams beneath it explain how to convert those electronic signals back into pictures. **See the diagram below for more information.* ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/07/data-src-image-3dc01b0d-d2ad-447f-a9fc-2cc272460840.png) The binary numbers also indicate that each image contains 512 vertical lines and that each line lasts about 8 milliseconds. The bottom-left diagram, known as the pulsar map, symbolizes the location of the Sun. The large engraved star at the center of the radiating lines represents the Sun, while the 14 surrounding lines point toward nearby pulsars, each labeled with binary numbers representing its pulse frequency. Finally, the diagram in the lower right depicts two hydrogen atoms in different spin states; the small arrows extending from each circle represent the spins of the proton and electron. The line between the two states shows that they are interchangeable through a process known as the hyperfine transition of hydrogen. During this transition, a hydrogen atom emits a radio wave with a wavelength of 21 centimeters (1,420 MHz), creating a universal standard for measurement. Together, they demonstrate how to reconstruct each image one line at a time. After all 512 lines are put together, an image should appear. NASA intentionally made the first image a circle so that whoever discovered the record could verify they had decoded it correctly. If the circle appeared stretched or distorted, they could assume something had gone wrong during reconstruction. Overall, the intricate diagrams engraved on the Golden Record serve a purpose far beyond decoration. Together, they provide a universal instruction manual that explains how to play the record, decode its images, and understand its measurements without relying on any human language. ​In today's world, one might argue that the Golden Record no longer holds the same importance because it has gradually grown outdated. As time passes and life on Earth continues to evolve, the record may no longer provide a completely accurate representation of humanity. It’s also possible that aliens may never even find the disk in the first place! Howells, a public education specialist at The Planetary Society, believes otherwise; > *“Even if that message in a bottle is never intercepted, the Voyager Golden Records have made the human species, our planet, and our love immortal in the Universe.”* Regardless of discovery, the Golden Record serves as Earth’s time capsule, a constant reminder of what drives us, what inspires us, what defines us. When NASA was tasked with sending a message that had to represent all of humanity to the universe, they came up with the Golden Record. This begs the question- ***what message would you send?*** --- ## **References** Davis, P. (Ed.). (n.d.). *Golden record contents - NASA science*. What are the contents of the Golden Record? [https://science.nasa.gov/mission/voyager/golden-record-contents/](https://science.nasa.gov/mission/voyager/golden-record-contents/?ref=youthstemline.com) Carney, S. (Ed.). (2026, May 7). *Golden record cover - NASA science*. The Golden Record Cover. https://science.nasa.gov/mission/voyager/golden-record-cover Davis, P. (2025, April 7). *Making of the golden record - NASA science*. Making of the Voyager Golden Record. https://science.nasa.gov/mission/voyager/making-of-the-golden-record/ *The Voyager Golden Record: Humanity’s message to the Cosmos – Astrography*. The Voyager Golden Record: Humanity’s Message to the Cosmos. (n.d.). https://astrography.com/blogs/news/the-voyager-golden-record-humanitys-message-to-the-cosmos Barnett, A. (Ed.). (2025, February 28). *Images on the golden record*. Images on the Golden Record. https://science.nasa.gov/gallery/images-on-the-golden-record/ *Understanding turntable stylus types | audio-technica*. Understanding Turntable Stylus Types. (2022, June 1). https://www.audio-technica.com/en-gb/press/understanding-turntable-stylus-types Tran, M. (Ed.). (2024, October 29). *What is the Universe? - NASA science*. What is the Universe? https://science.nasa.gov/exoplanets/what-is-the-universe/ *How to read a Pulsar map*. How to Read a Pulsar Map. (n.d.). https://www.pbs.org/the-farthest/science/pulsar-map/ Nave, C. R. (n.d.). *The hydrogen 21-cm line*. The Hydrogen 21-cm Line. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/h21.html Howells, K. (2025, April 29). *The Voyager Golden Records: A cosmic Love… | the planetary society*. The Voyager Golden Records: A cosmic love letter. https://www.planetary.org/articles/the-voyager-golden-records ### EVs: Good for the Climate, Bad for the Environment URL: https://youthstemline.com/evs-good-for-the-climate-bad-for-the-environment/ Last updated: 2026-07-06T22:11:46.000Z By Aniela Coughlin \~ 5 minutes \~ --- EVs, or electric vehicles, are glorified as a “green” alternative to petrol-fueled cars, but their devastating effects on the environment are often glossed over. To understand the damaging effects that EVs impose on the Earth’s climate, we must look at the entire manufacturing process, starting at the lithium mines. ![a concept car is shown in the dark](https://images.unsplash.com/photo-1704340142770-b52988e5b6eb?crop=entropy&cs=tinysrgb&fit=max&fm=jpg&ixid=M3wxMTc3M3wwfDF8c2VhcmNofDI5fHxlbGVjdHJpYyUyMHZlaGljbGV8ZW58MHx8fHwxNzgzMzc1NDQwfDA&ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=80&w=2000) Photo by [Hyundai Motor Group](https://unsplash.com/@hyundaimotorgroup?ref=youthstemline.com) / [Unsplash](https://unsplash.com/?utm%5Fsource=ghost&utm%5Fmedium=referral&utm%5Fcampaign=api-credit) ## EV’s Backbone: Lithium Instead of the Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) which burns oil for fuel in traditional petrol-based vehicles, Electric Vehicles are powered by electric energy stored in a lithium-ion battery. When the car is driving, electric energy flows from the battery to an electric motor, and this flow reverses as electricity refills the battery cells during charging. The lithium-ion batteries require large amounts of minerals–roughly six times as many as a traditional ICE car. The extraction and refining of these minerals is a process that the term “green” does *not* pertain to. Using electricity as fuel means that EVs produce net 0 carbon emissions *during operation*, but this statistic does not apply to the manufacturing process. ## The Facade of "Net 0" Emissions Lithium-ion batteries require a variety of metals and minerals in order to properly fuel an EV. Barring the CO2 emitted by transporting cobalt from the DRC or lithium and copper in Argentina to the refineries in China and finally to the US, the process of extraction and refining is in and of itself polluting. A report from MIT’s Climate Lab revealed that one ton of mined lithium emits nearly 15 tons of CO2\. In addition, a study from Princeton University focusing on India and China suggests that with the domestication of EV supply chains–meaning the refinement of nickel and cobalt among other elements of the production process–SO2 emissions could go up by 20% above the current standard. This does not mean that EVs are so harmful for the climate that manufacturing should stop immediately, but it is a critical tradeoff that often seems to be glossed over. While these numbers are concerning, EVs still inflict less damage on the climate than a standard gas car. It is the lithium-ion batteries’ effect on the environment which is most alarming. ## A Key Distinction: Fighting Climate Change Vs. Saving the Environment The climate pertains to anything to do with the Earth’s atmosphere and its patterns. It encompasses things like the greenhouse effect or unhealthy particulate matter in the air from SO2 emissions. When polar ice caps melt or global temperatures rise, this is due to changes in the Earth’s climate. The environment is a much broader concept as it includes all living organisms and physical elements such as soil, water, entire ecosystems, or human-made structures. When people talk about “saving the rainforests” or “protecting animals from extinction,” they are talking about saving the environment. While the Earth is like its own giant machine and so the changes in the environment can affect the climate and vice-versa, it is important to note this distinction between climate and environment because EVs successfully minimize the impacts of one but have a dreadful effect on the other. ## EVs and the Environment With a clear separation of the ideas of climate and environment in mind, let’s dive deeper into the latter. As mentioned before, EVs require large amounts of minerals and metals in order to function, and most of these go toward a lithium-ion battery, which is in charge of supplying electrical energy to the motor. Lithium, one of the main components of an EV battery, is found in a multi-mineral mixture present in salt flats, mostly extracted from the Andes region of South America. The extraction process of lithium from this mixture is an up to 18-month long, water-intensive process. Each ton of lithium requires 500,000 gallons of water, and not only does lithium extraction deplete natural water sources, but it also contaminates the water and soil around it. Other essential metals in EV batteries are copper and cobalt. Copper is mostly produced in Chile and Peru, and its mining necessitates the destruction of part of the rainforests in which it is found. To worsen affairs, copper mining contaminates vegetation and groundwater, often harming animals and wildlife as well. For cobalt extraction, however, human rights abuses have garnered more attention than environmental degradation. This toxic metal is mined primarily in the DRC, with the alarming use of child labor and exploitative mining practices. The safety of the Congolese is often sacrificed for profit or efficiency, leading to the deaths of hundreds of miners, with one notable mining accident in 2025 killing 32 people. To make matters worse, the sustainability of lithium mining has recently been put into question. A [2025 study](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2949790625001004?ref=youthstemline.com) on supply-demand ratios for lithium in EV markets across the US, Europe, and China predicts that while lithium production may grow by up to ten-fold by 2030, its supply will likely not meet market demands. One major critique of oil-fueled vehicles is the finite nature of fossil fuel reserves; if EVs fail to uphold the green principle of sustainability, then how “green” are they really? Does this mean we should resort to gas cars? Both the environment and climate-minded answers are a hard no. While mineral extraction for EVs is environmentally damaging, so is the oil fracking process, if not even more so. Additionally, the overall carbon footprint for EVs is significantly lower than that of traditional gas cars because an EV’s carbon production ends the moment it hits the road. But, it is important to realize that just because EVs are branded as “green,” they are not perfect. EVs still leave behind a trail of human rights and environmental issues which cannot be left unresolved. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/07/data-src-image-58b5e0b0-57e4-4392-aec4-eb5e34709d33.png) Congo Mine / International Images / ABC News © ## A Hope for the Future Innovation is the engine of progress, and new technologies promise a brighter future for both the ice caps in the Arctic and the sloths in Costa Rica. Hydrogen cars are an increasingly viable alternative to gas vehicles, with Toyota recently releasing the Mirai. Electric Vehicles are by no means perfect– their fuel system hinges on exploitative mining practices which harm people and damage ecosystems– but they are a step forward from traditional gas cars. This is exactly how EVs should be characterized: not as a permanent solution but as a stepping stone away from petrol-based vehicles. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/07/data-src-image-c9f2bf47-4c85-4e7e-8b36-1d7a1c84f918-1.png) 2022 Toyota Mirai / TheCarConnection © --- ## **References** “The Dark Side of Electric Vehicles: A Hidden Pollution Problem.” *The SciTech Daily*, 09 December 2024, [The Dark Side of Electric Vehicles: A Hidden Pollution Problem](https://scitechdaily.com/the-dark-side-of-electric-vehicles-a-hidden-pollution-problem/?ref=youthstemline.com). “The devastating toll of cobalt mining leaves over 32 dead in Congo.” *The Human Rights Research Center*, 03 December 2025, [The devastating toll of cobalt mining leaves over 32 dead in Congo](https://www.humanrightsresearch.org/post/the-devastating-toll-of-cobalt-mining-leaves-over-32-dead-in-congo?ref=youthstemline.com). “Lithium mining for EVs: How sustainable is it?” *APM Research Lab*, 22 February 2024, [Lithium mining for EVs: How sustainable is it? — APM Research Lab](https://www.apmresearchlab.org/10x/lithium-mining-for-evs-sustainability?ref=youthstemline.com). Xia, Manberger, and Debin Du. *Long on expectations, short on supply: Regional lithium imbalances and the effects of trade allocations by China, the EU, and the USA.* Science Direct, 2025\. --- ## ### Why Your Brain Might Be the Best Doctor URL: https://youthstemline.com/why-your-brain-might-be-the-best-doctor/ Last updated: 2026-06-26T01:31:21.000Z By Alan Chen \~ 4 minutes \~ --- Let’s talk about the infamous Henry Beecher: As the story goes, while treating wounded soldiers during World War II, Mr. Beecher ran out of the analgesic drug morphine. To continue his operations, he allegedly told his patients that he was injecting them with morphine when, in reality, he injected them with salt water instead. Surprisingly, despite the substitute having no pain-relieving effects, forty percent of patients reported experiencing no pain.\* Mr. Beecher would go on to publish *The Powerful Placebo*, a seminal paper establishing the placebo effect (Perry, 2012). \*It is important to note that this story is not backed by any modern evidence and is likely greatly exaggerated. Imagine you’re playing a video game and your younger sibling asks if they can join. Naturally, you hand them a controller, one that is not plugged in and serves no purpose. In the following minutes, you watch as they flip the joystick around in circles and even press a button here and there. And as you notice the newfound glimmer in their beady little eyes, you can see that their underdeveloped brain *really* believes that they are controlling the game. The placebo effect works similarly. A fake treatment, or a placebo, leverages a patient’s pre-existing expectations and natural brain chemistry to create a false positive effect (Better Health Channel, 2021). Since the brain controls the entire human body, if you believe a medicine is working, your body will respond accordingly. Even in the absence of an active treatment, the body can still increase dopamine and endorphin levels while lowering cortisol (Wager & Atlas, 2015). The conditions that are most affected by placebos are usually those already controlled by the brain itself, including stress, nausea, and fatigue. Primarily physical conditions, such as a broken bone, will not be as receptive to the placebo effect (Wager & Atlas, 2015). This effect has been widely documented in numerous clinical trials. Consider a study involving two groups: one group receives a genuine medicine, while the other receives an identical but inert one. Within the following days, many individuals from the placebo group report pain relief nonetheless. While it’s easy to chalk this up to imagination, there is a real neurological explanation for this. Placebo treatments produce reduced activity in brain regions associated with pain, including the medial thalamus, anterior insula, and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (Wager & Atlas, 2015). Even though the individual has received no physical healing, the brain has nonetheless altered how it communicates pain. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/data-src-image-90c0c3dc-7b26-4cb2-9478-bd7029b72ad7.png) Chronic Pain in the Brain / BrainCentre UK © The physical presentation of a placebo is also important. Studies have shown that larger pills produce a stronger effect than smaller ones, and that the quantity of pills has a positive relationship with the effect as well. Injections tend to produce more significant results compared to pills (Better Health Channel, 2021). But just as the placebo effect can produce positive outcomes, the opposite phenomenon can produce negative ones. This “nocebo” effect occurs when negative expectations lead to negative physical results even in the absence of a harmful factor (Better Health Channel, 2021). Mentioning potential pain can cause the release of cortisol and other hormones (Wager & Atlas, 2015). Notably, one study found that when participants were warned about potential headaches, they released higher levels of prostaglandin, a pain-causing compound. Furthermore, these levels were able to be reversed via a placebo (Wager & Atlas, 2015). In other words, the brain is more active than it may seem; it is not only reacting to what happens but also to what it *expects* to happen. This draws attention to how doctors should describe a medication to a patient. While an exhaustive list of a medication's potential side effects is legally required, it may also increase the odds of a patient experiencing those same effects. The power of the placebo has spurred significant debate over the ethics of its use. Placebo treatments are a key tool in research, helping separate the psychological effects of treatments from the actual benefits of a drug (Better Health Channel, 2021). This helps determine whether a developing medication really works or if its benefits are simply a result of the context in which it was administered. However, critics argue that the placebo effect violates the moral principles of medicine. The very concept of a placebo depends on the deception of the person receiving it. This deception, even with good intentions, naturally raises ethical concerns (Better Health Channel, 2021). Scientists have experimented with ‘open-label’ placebos, where patients are told upfront that they are taking a non-functional pill. Shockingly, in these scenarios, the effect can persist despite the patient knowing the treatment should have no effect (von Wernsdorff et al., 2021). This may be because the context of a clinical study and the physical action of taking medicine are enough to cause the perception of improvement, but research is ongoing regarding this phenomenon (von Wernsdorff et al., 2021). Open-label placebos present the possibility of harnessing the healing responses triggered by the placebo effect without requiring any deception. Of course, these capabilities do not mean that all pain is imaginary, nor that you can fool someone out of an illness. A placebo cannot shrink a tumor; it cannot close a wound or cure an infection. But what this effect shows is that the mind and the body are much more interconnected than one may assume, and that the lead-up to a treatment should be viewed as part of the treatment itself. --- ## **References** Better Health Channel. (2021, July 23). *Placebo effect*. Vic.gov.au. https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/placebo-effect Perry, S. (2012). *The Power of the Placebo*. Brainfacts.org. https://www.brainfacts.org/archives/2012/the-power-of-the-placebo von Wernsdorff, M., Loef, M., Tuschen-Caffier, B., & Schmidt, S. (2021). Effects of open-label placebos in clinical trials: a systematic review and meta-analysis. *Scientific Reports*, *11*(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-83148-6 Wager, T. D., & Atlas, L. Y. (2015). The Neuroscience of Placebo effects: Connecting context, Learning and Health. *Nature Reviews Neuroscience*, *16*(7), 403–418\. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3976 --- ### TomorrowMakers Series: Why Don't Airplanes Fall Out of the Sky? URL: https://youthstemline.com/tomorrowmakers-series-why-dont-airplanes-fall-out-of-the-sky/ Last updated: 2026-06-26T06:36:37.000Z By Aravli Paliwal \~ 3 minutes \~ --- ### **Word Bank** **Engineers** – People who design, build, and improve things to solve problems. **Weight** – The force that pulls an object downward because of gravity. **Gravity** – The force that pulls objects toward Earth. **Lift** – The force that pushes an airplane upward into the sky. **Thrust** – The force that pushes an airplane forward. **Engines** – Machines that produce power to move an airplane forward. **Drag** – The force of air pushing against an airplane and slowing it down. --- Imagine you're sitting on a plane. You look out the window and see clouds below you. Then you remember something strange: Airplanes are incredibly heavy. Some airplanes weigh more than 400 tons (about the same as a herd of elephants!) So, how can something that heavy stay in the air? In this article we will discover the four invisible **forces** that engineers use to make flight possible. ## **Meet the Four Forces of Flight** Imagine you're playing tug-of-war. One team is pulling one way, and the other team is pulling the opposite way. An airplane experiences something similar every second it is in the sky! Four forces are constantly acting on an airplane. **Engineers** must carefully balance these forces to keep the plane flying safely. ![man in green safety vest standing under white structure](https://images.unsplash.com/photo-1485310818226-f01c4269687f?crop=entropy&cs=tinysrgb&fit=max&fm=jpg&ixid=M3wxMTc3M3wwfDF8c2VhcmNofDE1fHxhaXJwbGFuZSUyMGVuZ2luZWVyc3xlbnwwfHx8fDE3ODE4NDcyMTR8MA&ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=80&w=2000) Photo by [Pandu Agus Wismoyo](https://unsplash.com/@kangterbang?ref=youthstemline.com) / [Unsplash](https://unsplash.com/?utm%5Fsource=ghost&utm%5Fmedium=referral&utm%5Fcampaign=api-credit) ### **Weight** The first force is **weight**. Weight is caused by gravity, the force that pulls everything toward Earth. **Gravity** acts on everything around us. It keeps our feet on the ground, causes a dropped pencil to fall, and even pulls on giant airplanes. No matter how large or small an airplane is, gravity is always trying to pull it downward. If weight were the only force acting on an airplane, flying would be impossible because it wouldn't even lift off the ground! ### **Lift** To overcome gravity, airplanes need **lift**. **Lift** is the force that pushes an airplane upward into the sky. Most of this lift comes from the airplane's wings. Engineers carefully design wings with special shapes that help create lift as air moves around them. When lift becomes stronger than weight, the airplane can rise off the ground and take flight. ### **Thrust** The next force is **thrust**. Thrust is the force that pushes an airplane forward. It is created by the airplane's **engines**. Whether the plane uses jet engines or propellers, the goal is the same: move the airplane through the air. Without thrust, the airplane would not move fast enough for its wings to create lift. ### **Drag** The final force is **drag**. As an airplane moves through the air, the atmosphere pushes back against it. This force is called drag. You can think of drag as an invisible brake that tries to slow the airplane down. Engineers work hard to design airplanes with smooth shapes so they can reduce drag and fly more efficiently. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-13-1-1.png) Four Forces on an Airplane / NASA © ### **Keeping Everything Balanced** For an airplane to fly smoothly, these four forces must work together. - Weight pulls down. - Lift pushes up. - Thrust pushes forward. - Drag pushes backward. When engineers balance these forces correctly, an airplane can safely carry hundreds of passengers thousands of miles through the sky. The next time you see a plane overhead, remember: you're looking at one of the greatest engineering inventions ever created. By balancing four powerful forces, airplanes can carry people thousands of miles through the sky and take you from Dallas to New York City (over 1,500 miles away!) in about the time it takes to watch a Harry Potter movie and eat a snack! --- ### Water Hyacinths: Microplastics’ Worst Enemy? URL: https://youthstemline.com/water-hyacinths-microplastics-worst-enemy/ Last updated: 2026-06-26T06:37:02.000Z By Emory Daniel \~ 3 minutes \~ --- What if someone told you that you were ingesting the plastic equivalent of a credit card every single week? According to the World Wildlife Fund this is the reality. The WWF commissioned a study that found we all consume about 2000 tiny pieces of plastic every week. “We can’t escape consuming plastics \[without\] tackling the plastic crisis” , WWF's International Director General, Marco Lambertini, explains (WWF). These tiny plastics that this study is referring to are known as microplastics, which are detrimental to the health of the animals and plants in the surrounding environments as well as humans. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-12.png) Understanding Microplastics and Chemical Leaching / Parcel Health Many attempts to remove microplastics have excessive energy expenditure or high expenses, leading scientists to an unexpected solution: *Eichhornia crassipes*, or Water Hyacinths. The use of natural materials to remove pollutants, or phytoremediation with water hyacinths is possible due to their stem’s vascular rings and extensive root cap surface area that captures the microplastics without affecting the plant. These features basically provide the plant to remain unharmed even while removing microplastics from the environment. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/data-src-image-10ac2136-79c5-424a-8122-008d205f1874-1.png) Phytoremediation of microplastics by water hyacinth / ScienceDirect How did these scientists stumble upon an invasive water plant like the Water Hyacinth as the new revolutionary tool to cleaning out the microplastics in rivers? It all started when scientists wanted to take a closer look into the pollutants in the nearby rivers, for rivers often have higher microplastic retention. When looking at the Saigon River, scientists noticed that plastic concentrations in the plant patches are 32 times higher than at the river surface (Science Direct). This began experiments to see how the plants were interacting with the microplastics and how they were affecting their health. When looking at the Water Hyacinth patches, they saw between 54% and 77% of surface plastics from the Saigon River being trapped by the plants (Science Direct). Since they trap the plastics but are not affected by them because of the anatomy of their roots shown in the picture above, they harness the ability to revolutionize how we address the plastics in our waterways. While the Water Hyacinth sounds perfect, there are downsides to their possible integration to remove pollutants. Water Hyacinths are invasive, and can grow in size incredibly quickly. Luckily, through the studies conducted it is proven that they can remove the microplastics within 48 hours. After removing the plastics, they remain in the roots of the plant which can then be removed from the water and have the leaves and aerial portions of the plant which are not in contact with the plastics to be used as animal feed. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/data-src-image-e13a7c06-131b-4e4f-9c7f-93decaedef1f.png) Water hyacinth as fodder / Wikimedia Commons The United Nations Environmental Program states that everyday approximately 2000 garbage trucks worth of plastic is discarded into our worldwide waterways. New discoveries have led to an exciting new opportunity to use Water Hyacinths to remove plastics incredibly quickly from waterways. The use of an invasive species to solve a modern problem proves how nature adapts to environmental changes and with our support can help clean our water and better our environments. --- ### Artemis II URL: https://youthstemline.com/artemis-ii/ Last updated: 2026-06-26T06:37:24.000Z By Katherine Mao \~6 minutes --- If you haven’t heard already, NASA’s Artemis II mission is a historic 10-day crewed spaceflight that launched on April 1, 2026, and traveled around the moon. This mission marks the first time humans have traveled beyond low Earth orbit since 1972, and carried four astronauts: Reid Wiseman, Victor Glover, Christina Koch, and Jeremy Hansen aboard the Orion spacecraft. Through Artemis II, NASA set a new record for the greatest distance humans have ever traveled from Earth. # What was the point of the launch? The launch of Artemis II was vital to proving that the Orion spacecraft and its life support, navigation, and communication systems can safely support astronauts during a 10-day mission around the moon and back. During the flight, astronauts took control of the Orion capsule to test its manual flying capabilities and participated in biological studies examining radiation effects on human cells. They surveyed the lunar surface, taking over 7,000 photos, including lunar craters, the far side of the Moon, and a solar eclipse where Earth blocked the Sun. Artemis II is a follow-up to Artemis I, an uncrewed test flight that launched in November 2022, and is the precursor to future Artemis missions with the goal of landing on the moon. # Meet the Astronauts The Artemis II crew is composed of 4 astronauts: 3 Americans and 1 Canadian. Reid Wiseman, 50, is the captain of Artemis II. Formerly a Navy pilot, Mr. Wiseman went to the International Space Station in 2014 and served as NASA’s chief of the astronaut office. Victor Glover, 49, is the pilot for the Artemis II flight. Also a former Navy pilot, he served as pilot for a SpaceX flight to the International Space Station, and is now the first Black person to travel around the moon. Christina Koch, 47, spent nearly a year aboard the International Space Station, took part in the first all-female spacewalk, and is now the first woman to fly around the moon. Jeremy Hansen, 50, is a Canadian astronaut who traveled to space for the first time aboard Artemis II and became the first non-American to go around the moon. ![](https://media-cldnry.s-nbcnews.com/image/upload/t_fit-1240w,f_auto,q_auto:best/rockcms/2026-01/260129-nasa-artemis-crew-ii-mb-1141-beeb32.jpg) Clockwise from top left: Commander Reid Wiseman, Pilot Victor Glover, and Mission Specialists Christina Koch and Jeremy Hansen / NBC News© # The Space Launch System: The rocket that launched Orion into space(the SLS) is 322 feet tall and weighs 5.75 million pounds when filled with fuel. Though capable of sending nearly 60,000 pounds to the moon, the design is not cutting-edge. The rocket is mostly composed of technologies from space shuttles developed in the 1970s. Partially built by Lockheed Martin and the European Space Agency, Orion is the spacecraft the astronauts will live in for their trip to the moon and back. # Mission Day 1: Artemis II blasted off on Wednesday, April 1, at 6:35 p.m. Eastern at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Eight minutes after liftoff, the crew was in space and ready to begin their flight to the moon. Known as 39B, the launch site was originally built for rockets used during the Apollo moon missions. # Mission Day 2: On the second day, the Orion spacecraft performed its translunar injection burn. The burn breaks the spacecraft out of Earth’s orbit and sends it on a trajectory towards the moon. The flight course was designed to return in a loop around the moon and shoot back towards Earth without the need for another large engine burn # Mission Day 3: On their way to the moon, the third day will be spent practicing the tasks the crew needs to perform during the 3-hour lunar flyby in zero gravity. The astronauts also prepared for a minor correction burn to keep the trajectory on course and performed some safety demonstrations, such as CPR procedures. # Mission Day 4: On Day 4, Orion will perform another small correction burn. The rest of the day was spent running standard operations like communications with mission control and taking pictures of both Earth and the moon. # Mission Day 5: Halfway through the mission, Artemis II entered lunar space(when the moon’s gravitational pull becomes stronger than Earth’s) and began preparing for a lunar flyby the next day. The astronauts will spend the first half of the day practicing putting on their spacesuits, which are worn during launch and reentry in case of cabin depressurization. Before the day ended, Orion conducted the final correction burn. # Mission Day 6: The astronauts have set the record for humans to fly the farthest from Earth, a distance of 248,655 miles, set by the Apollo 13 mission in 1970\. That occurred at 1:56 p.m. Eastern time on Monday. They went a bit farther as they went around the far side of the moon, ending up 252,756 miles from Earth at 7:02 p.m., before looping back toward the planet. On day 6, Artemis II reached the moon with a closest approach between 4000 and 6000 miles above the moon’s surface. The astronauts then spent around 3 hours making detailed scientific observations about never-before-seen parts of the moon, then emerged from a planned 40 minute communications blackout and took pictures of a solar eclipse. At 1:56 p.m Eastern time, the astronauts set the record for humans to fly the farthest from Earth at a distance of 248,655 miles, then broke their own record at 7:02 pm, 252,756 miles away from Earth. # Mission Day 7: Orion exited lunar space on the morning of Day 7, and spent part of the day relaying information on everything from Orion’s performance to the astronauts' physical experiences to scientists on Earth. The astronauts briefly contacted their colleagues aboard the International Space Station before initiating the first of 3 small correction burns to keep the trajectory on the journey back # Mission Day 8: Day 8 was relatively quiet, with astronauts performing an exercise to demonstrate Orion’s maneuverability with both six and three degrees of freedom altitude controls # Mission Day 9: The astronauts spend most of Day 9 preparing for reentry, including a small trajectory correction burn, several technology demonstrations, and trying on orthostatic intolerance garments, which help counteract effects on the body after returning from a microgravity environment. # Mission Day 10: Orion performed its final correction burn on the way back to Earth. With the astronauts strapped in and suited up, Orion’s heat shield endured temperatures of 3,000 degrees Fahrenheit caused by the friction of reentry through Earth’s atmosphere. Three parachutes were deployed during the final descent, slowing Orion’s fall to 17mph as it hit the water off the coast of San Francisco, where a U.S Navy ship collected the spacecraft and astronauts onboard. Despite concerns about a design flaw in Orion’s heat shield, the astronauts used a modified re-entry angle that exposed them to heat for a shorter period of time and completed a successful journey. --- ### WHAT IS HUMAN NATURE? URL: https://youthstemline.com/what-is-human-nature/ Last updated: 2026-06-26T06:38:19.000Z By Summer Chen \~ 7 minutes --- I grew up thinking that everyone is born evil. Even though I was told that people always tried to help each other, this wasn’t consistent with any of my experiences. Children would only stop bullying each other when they were told, people around me would steal from candy shops, my classmates would constantly lie and cheat. Contrastingly, I was also able to consider that some people were inherently kind – exemplified by when I felt a genuine desire to share my food with my sister (even though she is potentially the most annoying human I have ever met). This raised the idea of human nature to me – are we naturally good, or born to be evil? In a world where it is believed that everyone is evil and immoral, people would likely trust each other less. Relationships might struggle as they would be unwilling to resolve conflict due to lack of belief and trust in the other person. In politics, voting procedures which often rely on a positive view of society would come into question: should we allow people who do not have our best interests at heart to determine our lives? On the other hand, if everyone believed everyone was good at heart, then this would likely mean more rehabilitation and soft approaches to the criminals of society, and the capacity to point blame on external circumstances as a justification of one’s behaviour, meaning most people no longer feeling accountable for their behaviour and wanting to improve. This article explores the view that we are not born good or evil, but our society has a huge impact on shaping us to be ‘evil’. Nature is the concept of how humans are “supposed to be from the start” – how we are guaranteed to act from the minute we are born. One perspective that was shared by John Locke is that everyone is born with their minds in a ‘blank state’: the concept of *tabula rasa*. Everyone’s early experiences make them who they are, and nurture determines their actions. Contrastingly, some believe that nature heavily influences our daily actions, including whether we act morally good, or immorally evil. On the other hand, the concept of nurture regards how society teaches their children to act like, spreading influence through their behaviour. This concept is likely more about how society’s expectations change a person from when they are young and how their own personal stories and situations shape them. So I suppose the real question is: are we inclined to a certain set of actions because we are human, or do we conduct those actions due to our upbringing? Some believe that humans are born evil. People like Thomas Hobbes, for example, believed thatbecause people have an infinite amount of wants but a finite amount of resources, therefore this leads to competition. For example, even if I don’t want resources (such as my friend’s snacks or a certain grade in school), I only want it because *someone else* has it. This competitive nature was thought to extend past material possession to a desire for superiority. He also thought that vanity and jealousy exist only because we live with other human beings. Both these factors, which exist when we are born, made him come to the conclusion that humans are inherently evil. Therefore, he believed that the only resolution society must make is to create a powerful absolute government to impose order, because human nature is completely savage with no interest outside one’s own. In contrast, some people are not as negative as Thomas Hobbes. These people think that we are inherently good but shaped by society to be evil. This is what Jean-Jacques Rosseau believed – the distinction between this and Hobbes’ argument differs in root rather than characteristic. Rosseau thought people inherently want to serve each other and are innocent. His opinion was that we are all corrupted by negative environmental influences. An example of this corrupt society could include learning toxic competitiveness and selfishness through the taught desire to succeed. As a result, Rosseau developed the concept *amour de soi*, naming it a natural and healthy type of self-love which aims for peace and satisfaction. Contrastingly, he also defined *amour propre*, where one’s self-love is based on vanity, reputation and seeking approval. He deduced that *amour de soi* is natural and what we are born to be, while *amour propre* is defined by others and causes competition and conflict. In a natural isolated state of existence, he thought that humans are content with limited desires. He came to the conclusion that children should have upbringings of curiosity, freedom and exploration without being hindered and corrupted by society. However, a counter argument to this belief are multiple experiments on ‘The Game of Life’: a simulation where civilisation could live in a peaceful society if they wanted to. In multiple different situations and worlds, these simulated people constantly chose violence. This proved that when left to do whatever they want with society, people are naturally inclined to cause violence and chaos. But what if it’s really not that deep? What if we can just control who we are, whether we are naturally evil or not? That’s what Plato thought. Plato’s view was that we humans are like charioteers. We have our good sides and bad sides, like a charioteer drives two horses. But if the charioteer is strong and disciplined enough, he would be able to control both horses. The charioteer is a metaphor for our reason. To rationally control oneself with both, we are ultimately free to be who we want to be. Plato “resolves” both points through his perspective of nature. He says that we are not inherently evil or good, instead we can be either way and the only way to win in life is to be rational and smart. I don’t personally align with Hobbes’ belief that humans being savage and evil is natural. Instead, I believe that this is societal because our recent past has taught us that being selfish and evil will lead only to survival (e.g., the stone age, famine-stricken times, the transition to agriculture), and that we are not physically evolved to be self-interested. I’m not so inclined to Rosseau’s belief either, because I have no reason to believe it – I’ve never seen any justification that humans were certainly born with a natural inclination to be good. The reason I really do believe that Plato’s case is right to an extent is because I think everyone has some control over who they are, whether they become a bad person or not. But in conjunction with Rosseau, I strongly believe that it is a lot harder than Plato claims to control who you are in this kind of society – even if one hides behind the façade of being good, I think that we are all shaped by society to think selfish thoughts: increasingly in the last couple hundred years, society has shifted from being more communal to individualistic. --- ### Mogging 101: How Should You Be Looksmaxxing? URL: https://youthstemline.com/mogging-101-how-should-you-be-looksmaxxing/ Last updated: 2026-06-26T06:39:11.000Z By Bela Koganti \~ 9 minutes --- Where were you when ASU frat leader frame mogged Clavicular? According to [Merriam-Webster](https://www.merriam-webster.com/slang/looksmaxxing?ref=youthstemline.com), looksmaxxing refers to: > “efforts, sometimes extreme, young men take to look more attractive” Under the looksmaxxing umbrella, you’ve got frame mogging, black pill, True Adams, True Eves, and everything in between. Now, with so many terms thrown around Tiktok, Instagram Reels, and Youtube Shorts, it can seem impossible to figure out what’s real or how any of it even works. So, let’s embark on a journey through a few of the most popular looksmaxxing techniques. # A Precaution Before we begin, it’s important to note that you absolutely do not need to do any of this. In fact, some of these techniques are much more harmful than beneficial, which we’ll explore. Your genetics and individuality make you, you! So, even if you feel compelled to change on the outside, hold onto who you are on the inside and don’t damage yourself just to chisel your face a little more. Alright, now that we’re clear, let’s get started! # Bonesmashing We’re starting off with a scary-sounding and somewhat severe one. Bonesmashing is literally pummeling your facial bones–specifically those on your cheeks, chin, and jawline–with a hammer to alter your bone structure. Thanks to Wolff’s Law, many indulgers believe that the ‘bonesmashing’ changes the shape of their bones, therefore defining their faces. In the nineteenth century, German surgeon Julius Wolff explored the observation that bones continuously reshape themselves as old, broken bones dissipate into the body and are replaced by new ones. Thus, he proclaimed that mechanical force and trauma to your bones can speed up the replacement process, making thicker bones; looksmaxxers adopted his theory, banking on the hope that those thick bones will appear more prominent and defined in their faces. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-w-1024.png) Charlie Sosnick / What is Bonesmashing? Inside the Extreme Looksmaxxer Technique / GQ Essentially, they hit their faces to break or ‘smash’ the bones and make new, chiseled ones. However, it really only makes them worse for the wear. The mechanical force Wolff discussed was really meant to mean exercising and lifting weights, not pummeling your face. While your bones may end up healing differently than before, you really don’t know that they’ll end up looking any better. Also, your facial appearance doesn’t just result from your bones. Tissues and organs could be irreversibly damaged, and pounding your skin could cause lesions that could easily get infected. Your nutrition and hormones also affect your bone health, so bonesmashing may not even do much at all. Honestly, hurting yourself with whatever mallet you can find really isn’t worth it. Rather than ending up chiseled, it’s much more likely that your bones will reshape in unnatural looking ways or simply not change at all. # Limb Lengthening Surgery Okay, this one is also intense! Limb lengthening surgery is a procedure in which a surgeon breaks the femur or tibia in a patient’s legs before putting a magnetic rod and pins inside the bone to ensure and manipulate a lengthened bone. Post-op, patients adjust the rod a little each day, stretching out the bone, muscles, tendons, skin, and arteries. Generally, limb lengthening surgery can make you up to six inches taller. Limb lengthening was first meant to fix leg length differences and misalignments from birth deformities, disease, and injuries. However, it has recently become a popular cosmetic surgery. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-1-w-800.png) Leg-lengthening surgery takes the world by storm / EastCoast Radio While many look at limb lengthening surgery and only see the promise of getting taller, you’re also sidelined for quite a while after surgery. You’d likely need extensive physical therapy to recover, and you could be unable to exercise- or even walk unassisted- for about twice as long as the months spent adjusting the rod. For instance, if you spent three months stretching your legs out, you’d spend another six months fully sedentary or, if you’re lucky, doing minimal walking with crutches and walkers. And of course, you’d need multiple follow-up appointments with your doctor. Jeez. Other than being bored to death during the recovery phase, there are multiple risks associated with limb lengthening: blood clots; infection; damage to nerves and blood vessels; improper and misaligned bone healing; tightness; and the rod malfunctioning, causing you to need another surgery. Of course, limb lengthening surgery is a terrific option for you if you really, *really,* want to get taller, or if it’ll correct leg length misalignments. However, you must be ready to undergo months of sedentariness, thorough physical therapy, numerous doctor appointments, and the aforementioned side effects and risks, which could require even more surgery or lead to severe health issues. If you’re absolutely certain that this is the surgery for you, go for it! But if you have even an inkling of doubt, reevaluate whether all this pain is worth a couple inches. # Haircuts Finally! We’ve made it to something a little more accessible and relevant for the average person. All over social media, influencers have been pushing the narrative that haircuts significantly change people’s perceptions of your attractiveness (think: that popular haircare line *BASED,* those obviously dramatized haircut transformations, and arguments over whether people’s natural hair colors suit them best). But is this true? In a study done by Nobert Mesko and Tamas Bereczkei, women’s faces were evaluated on femininity, youth, health, and sexiness when wearing six different hairstyles (short, medium-long, long, disheveled, in a bun, and unkempt) in comparison to faces that were bald (basic face). They found that only long and medium-long hair positively and significantly affected the evaluation rankings. Actually, the category that longer hair most affected was health—the male raters thought the women appeared more healthy with longer hair, even if they rated them lower on overall attractiveness. So, Mesko and Bereczkei theorized that because having longer hair is much more expensive than short (shampoo costs, haircuts, etc), it is associated with being more wealthy and having better genes. Pretty interesting, right? Here’s a blog post that claims to know the correlation between haircuts and overall beauty. But remember—this is a blog, so it can’t really be trusted for anything more than basic observation skills. Pouya Zoghipour says hair color, length, and texture are the biggest factors. According to her, hair color comes with stereotypes, so you adopt those when meeting other people. About hair length, she doesn’t say what’s ‘best’ but believes that > “Long hair is often associated with femininity and youthfulness, while shorter hairstyles can convey confidence and assertiveness.” Zoghipour also emphasizes that you must learn to understand and work with your natural hair texture, saying that > “Curly hair is often seen as playful and energetic, while straight hair is perceived as sleek and sophisticated.” She has other tips, but these are her main three. A Yale study, on the other hand, emphasized the correlation between your hair and your self-esteem. Think about it: if you wake up late with crazy hair and have no time to fix it, you’ll probably feel a little self-conscious all day, and you’ll probably be a little more reserved. You wouldn’t really be able to give as much energy and enthusiasm as you would on a day where, well, your hair looked fantastic and you felt fantastic. Look good, feel good, right? Plus, waking up late and not loving how your hair looks can often feel like the first sign of a bad day, so you can sometimes end up seeking out the inconveniences in your day. So, while your hair somewhat impacts how attractive others think you are, it can also impact how you feel and your outlook on your everyday life. You know, I’d agree with Zoghipour that learning to love and care for your hair can pay fantastic dividends! # How Looksmaxxing Affects You, Not Just Your Face Although the aforementioned ‘look good, feel good’ phrase is real and working, I’d argue that finding comfort and joy in the way you look now is much more impactful than crushing up your facial bones or getting surgery for a few more inches of height. While such strategies can absolutely help your self-confidence, just accepting and loving who you are now is a better long-term solution and can also protect you from any impostor syndrome. According to Oxford Languages, impostor syndrome is > “the persistent [inability](https://www.google.com/search?newwindow=1&safe=active&sa=X&sca%5Fesv=1f81df499d5b0247&biw=1440&bih=778&q=inability&si=AL3DRZENm3Vb5fKAKJGBSnAO98GGTS-ij5lRvkHlS2wbhAdkOn5nkqMeaWrD7LjxZ2lX0EV5fmqkoNEjb0KHGcO3OVLyXiCpzenm8kuCOMlvMdzzIzvqSNU%3D&expnd=1&ved=2ahUKEwjk95KQlLeTAxW1k2oFHX5DNg0QyecJegQILhAQ&ref=youthstemline.com) to believe that one's success is [deserved](https://www.google.com/search?newwindow=1&safe=active&sa=X&sca%5Fesv=1f81df499d5b0247&biw=1440&bih=778&q=deserved&si=AL3DRZGCrnAF0R35UNPJcgaBbCFaJ91TaycLW%5FEq-CQy9WwbGtCNes-MaQZw1wVyNm6BXhm-96D3C1q19KCLUhnToHjInEoupc8A4E1pHfwTX%5FK009ZIIWo%3D&expnd=1&ved=2ahUKEwjk95KQlLeTAxW1k2oFHX5DNg0QyecJegQILhAR&ref=youthstemline.com) or has been [legitimately](https://www.google.com/search?newwindow=1&safe=active&sa=X&sca%5Fesv=1f81df499d5b0247&biw=1440&bih=778&q=legitimately&si=AL3DRZEMXBqaLXSV-mI4aprR%5FvyySvqKmpi4jsIJbg-poapPMQw0NWmgR0L5IHJjkol3YmmeGuN4DJcfmAtHbvPOAx9Ti%5FqxBa11lw-5ZpAUUL8c%5FAUpNFI%3D&expnd=1&ved=2ahUKEwjk95KQlLeTAxW1k2oFHX5DNg0QyecJegQILhAS&ref=youthstemline.com) achieved as a result of one's own efforts or skills.” I mean, a core belief of looksmaxxing is that those who are attractive have life easier. If you only found happiness and success after changing yourself down to the bone, you might catch a little bit of impostor syndrome. And looking past how you see yourself, what about how you see others? When you fall so far down the rabbit hole of examining and picking apart yourself, when do you begin doing it to the people you see walking down the street? Personally, I already see looksmaxxers analyzing innocent teens’ lip syncs all over TikTok. Can you imagine doing that in real life? Of course, looksmaxxing is often just an odd and pretty comedic way to disguise attempts to better your appearance. However, in some cases, two funny bonesmashing videos can soon lead to two hours on the black pill side of the internet, and that can lead to an entire adolescence spent critiquing and completely changing yourself. So, proceed with caution, and remember that none of this is actually necessary. --- # References ###### Lee, B. Y. (2023, October 2). 'Bone smashing' TikTok trend, here are dangers of hammering your face. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/brucelee/2023/09/28/bone-smashing-tiktok-trend-here-are-dangers-of-hammering-your-face/?sh=509590387a92 ###### Limb lengthening surgery. (n.d.). Penn Medicine. https://www.pennmedicine.org/treatments/limb-lengthening ###### Martinez, M. (n.d.). Bone smashing doesn't work. What to do instead. PerfectB. https://www.perfectb.com/does-bonesmashing-actually-work-a-doctors-guide-to-the-looksmaxxing-trend/ ###### Mesko, N., & Bereczkei, T. (2004). Hairstyle as an adaptive means of displaying phenotypic quality. Human nature (Hawthorne, N.Y.), 15(3), 251–270\. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12110-004-1008-6 ###### Sarah. (n.d.). The importance of hair in making a first impression. Belgravia Centre. https://www.belgraviacentre.com/blog/the-importance-of-hair-in-making-a-first-impression ###### Zoghipour, P. (2024, August 24). Does hairstyle affect attractiveness? Sabanci University. https://myweb.sabanciuniv.edu/pouyazoghipour/2024/08/24/does-hairstyle-affect-attractiveness/ --- ### Who Are We? Reclaiming Human Essence in the Shadow of AI URL: https://youthstemline.com/who-are-we-reclaiming-human-essence-in-the-shadow-of-ai/ Last updated: 2026-06-26T06:38:37.000Z By Annabel Hao \~ 13 minutes --- “Strength through Discipline! Strength through Community! Strength through Action!” Students repeat their motto with mounting fervor as they march through the school, gripping yellow membership cards stamped with the words, “The Wave.” Faces once alive with individuality now hold a single, unwavering resolve. The students’ expressions remain solemn as they perform their new rituals: a crisp salute, rigid posture, and the collective mantra that binds them together. In the novel, *The Wave* by Todd Strasser, Mr. Ross established The Wave as an experiment to allow both himself and his students to understand the allure of fascism. Yet within days, the movement grows far beyond its intended boundaries. When chaos overtakes the school, Mr. Ross realizes he must end the experiment and confront the students with the unsettling truth behind their conformity. Both Mr. Ross and his students surrendered their humanity for a false, distorted sense of equality. This artificial “equality” captivated members, arousing a newfound sense of “belonging” and “purpose”. Freedom of speech diminished, individuality eroded, and students yielded to a homogenous collective. The Wave, therefore, serves as a sinister testament to humanity’s susceptibility to groupthink, and the ease with which individuals can be molded into oppressive uniformity. Today, this experiment feels like a chilling precursor to the risks of losing ourselves in an increasingly AI-driven world. Just as The Waveobscured critical thinking and individual expression, AI has the potential to limit what makes us human. The rapid integration of AI and the temptation to rely on it for convenience paint a troubling future in which genuine creativity and critical thought may fade. Yet this future is not inevitable, because the nature of AI’s impact depends entirely on how *we* choose to use it. To fully analyze the effects of AI on humanity, one must begin with a fundamental question: What does it mean to be human? But this singular question, if answered, can unwrap the myriad of enigmas, complexities, and misconceptions that surround human life (Farrar). For thousands of years, we sought to capture the vastness of human experience. Why are we unique among other species? Our existence is an anomaly, characterized by “our capacity for abstract thought, emotional depth, complex communication, and moral reasoning” (Goldstein). Humanity is not defined by any singular trait but rather by the collective interplay of these qualities as they converge (Goldstein). While we share this planet with countless other species, we deviate from the ordinary due to our “humanness,” which enables unparalleled innovation and rapid technological advancements. Although other species are primarily fueled by instinct and a response to immediate needs, humans conceptualize abstract ideas, imagine infinite possibilities, and envision a future shaped by purpose (Goldstein). These capabilities are the pillars that propelled our evolution from primitive ancestors to thinkers and creators who crafted culture and technology. As generative AI rapidly gains momentum, it becomes more imperative that we embrace the qualities that make us human. Compassion and empathy have always fueled human progress, for they establish interpersonal relationships which in turn ensure that ideas are shared and built upon. Compassion bridges divides, and empathy encourages understanding across cultures and ideologies. When guided by human values, technology becomes a force that elevates humanity. Ethical considerations must guide technological development, ensuring innovations truly enhance the quality of life, rather than undermining these fundamental principles (Goldstein). As we look towards the future of AI, the defining question should not be what the tool can achieve but how *we* choose to use it. Will we rely on it excessively and accept the consequences, or will we harness it responsibly to build a future worthy of human potential? Yet, what happens if our humanness is slowly eroding, layer by layer, until our creativity, compassion, morality, and sense of identity dissolve into algorithmic uniformity? Ironically, AI was once valued as a tool that empowered creativity and enhanced the diversity of human intelligence. Today, it often does the opposite. Convenience encourages overdependence, leading people to substitute AI for learning, creating, and thinking. The rush to monetize AI reveals a troubling trend: the replacement of human intelligence with AI intelligence. Why learn to write when an AI can do it for you? Why should we bother improving our own musical skills when AI can compose a piece in seconds? Overreliance weakens our intellectual autonomy, narrowing the richness of human thought (Bernt, Torsten). In a world where greed, selfishness, and profit dominate, the overreliance on AI can motivate us to sacrifice our intellectual and creative autonomy. The incompetency of AI’s content is due to its inability to “create from the heart or soul; it regurgitates patterns based on the vast datasets it has consumed” (Bernt and Torsten). Thus, when everyone draws out of the same pool of creativity and knowledge, humans lose the uniqueness and imperfection that defines *human* work. The "dumbification" of humanity yields a society where cultural output becomes sterile, where creativity is reduced to a series of predictable algorithms – one where humanity loses its ability to think critically. Increasingly, people allow statistical analysis and data-driven profiling to define them. Who we are and what we should do can be “answered” by AI, which can ultimately “anticipate” our next shopping choices, political leanings, and even our potential career paths, thus creating the illusion that identity is something computed rather than cultivated. In reality, reliance on these systems risks surrendering the formation of identity to technology. Identity should be something we actively shape, not something determined by patterns in our digital footprint. We should be able to choose who we are (Leuenberger). We should be the ones who nurture, develop, and shape our identity. We may lose skills for “self-creation, calcify \[our\] identity, and cede power over \[our\] identity to companies and government” (Leuenberger). In our quest to build machines that mimic or surpass human intelligence, it is evident that we have underestimated the value of our own minds. AI doesn’t experience valuable emotions such as joy, pain, loss, or love. Authentic creativity emerges from lived experience, not from data analysis. In any artistic practice, the process itself determines the value of the result. I recently read an artist lamenting that drawing feels pointless if machines can do it better. “What is the point in drawing if there are machines out there that can do it better than us?” In reality, the significance of art lies in the perseverance, reflection, and self-expression that arise in the process. The imperfections that reveal a personal struggle or a moment of insight give art its authenticity. Additionally, “better” is a subjective word that is open to interpretation, but I believe “better” defines any work that reflects the artist’s unique identity in a way that surprises yet resonates with the viewer. A piece resonates when it carries the weight of a lived experience. AI “can only learn how something 'should' sound or look by analysing huge amounts of existing work” (Ehrhardt). Artists like Billie Eilish and Lana Del Rey channel emotions rooted in memory, vulnerability, and human experience. People who fear that AI alone could endanger humanity often argue that we are victims of the AI effect - a human tendency to emphasize the human attributes we do not share with AI. Traits such as “humor, having a personality, holding beliefs, having relationships, upholding a culture, etc.” are said to have become increasingly important to us as humans (Simmons, Santoro, and Monin). As AI becomes more ubiquitous, it is only logical that individuals will place greater importance on soft skills that help humans stand out and express their values. However, it is not true that we reinforce the skills that distinguish humans merely because we are afraid of AI’s intelligence and the possibility of a future where machines triumph, and we are left redundant. In reality, “the future lies not in AI versus humans” (Flitter), for both parties possess unique strengths that complement one another. Although AI may surpass humans in some conventional aspects of intelligence, such as efficiency, data processing, precision in calculations, strategic decision-making, complex mathematical concepts, or pattern analysis, humans possess a special form of intelligence that operates on cognition, emotional intelligence, creativity, and adaptability (Uniyal and Kumar). Instead of fearing AI as a replacement, we should view it as a powerful tool that, when used ethically and in conjunction with human intelligence, can render unprecedented advancements and improvements in various fields. In the resolution of *The Wave* by Todd Strasser, Mr. Ross holds an assembly for members of The Wave, understanding that it must end. Within this assembly, Mr. Ross sees his experiment through to a powerful conclusion by teaching members the lesson he intended to teach: the potent dangers of collective equality. Today, humanity experiences a rendition of The Wave as we lose the essence of being human in an AI-driven world. Now, more than ever, we must ask: Where do we go from here? The answer is not to abandon AI entirely – it is a powerful tool that has the potential to enhance human capabilities while also boosting innovation. Although we cannot rally the world for an assembly like Mr. Ross, we can take a step towards an intelligent yet innovative future by educating those around us. To start off, we must emphasize the importance of maintaining a balance to prevent the overuse of AI. With the balance in mind, we understand the importance of nurturing our problem-solving skills, creativity, and emotional intelligence alongside technological advancements (Samradni). We will learn to recognize that while a world driven by AI-generated mediocrity may be efficient, it is not fulfilling. In the long run, we can advocate for education systems to focus on encouraging and cultivating creativity, critical thinking, and emotional intelligence, skills AI cannot replicate (Bernt and Torsten). If we continue to excessively rely on AI without reflection or change, we risk creating a society that is dull, homogenized, and devoid of human qualities. To find a balance between AI and human intelligence, we, as individuals, must continuously question: At what cost to our individual expression and autonomy do we allow AI to anticipate and potentially shape our choices? As Carl Sagan famously said, “For small creatures such as we, the vastness is bearable only through love.” In the vastness of AI, our humanness, with its blend of intellect, emotion, and morality, is the beacon that will light our way forward for a future worthy of our potential. --- # References ###### Bernt, and Torsten. “The Death of Individuality: Has AI Made Us All the Same?” Torbjorn Zetterlund, 5 Jan. 2025, torbjornzetterlund.com/the-death-of-individuality-has-ai-made-us-all-the-same. Accessed 11 June 2025. ###### Ehrhardt, Milan. “The Human Touch: Why AI Will Never Fully Replace Human Creativity.” Medium, 14 Feb. 2025, medium.com/%40milanehr/the-human-touch-why-ai-will-never-fully-replace-human-creativity-0159fd508834. ###### Farrar, Jon. “What Does It Mean to Be Human?” BBC Earth, www.bbcearth.com/news/what-does-it-mean-to-be-human. Accessed 11 June 2025. ###### Flitter, Justin. “Why AI Will Never Replace Humans.” AI New Zealand, 12 Jan. 2025, newzealand.ai/insights/why-ai-will-never-replace-humans?utm\_source=chatgpt.com. Accessed 11 June 2025. ###### Goldstein, Sam. “Being Human.” Dr. Sam Goldstein, samgoldstein.com/resources/articles/general/2025/being-human.aspx. Accessed 11 June 2025. ###### Kumar, Aditya. “AI Vs Human Intelligence.” Simplilearn, 9 June 2025, www.simplilearn.com/artificial-intelligence-vs-human-intelligence-article. Accessed 11 June 2025. ###### Leuenberger, Muriel. “AI ‘can Stunt the Skills Necessary for Independent Self-creation’: Relying on Algorithms Could Reshape Your Entire&Hellip;” Live Science, 27 Oct. 2024, www.livescience.com/technology/artificial-intelligence/ai-can-stunt-the-skills-necessary-for-independent-self-creation-relying-on-algorithms-could-reshape-your-entire-identity-without-you-realizing. Accessed 11 June 2025. ###### Maheshwari, Rashi. “Advantages of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in 2025.” Forbes Advisor INDIA, 11 Apr. 2023, www.forbes.com/advisor/in/business/software/advantages-of-ai. ###### Monin, Benoît, and Erik Santoro. “The AI Effect.” SPSP, 30 May 2025, spsp.org/news/character-and-context-blog/santoro-monin-humanity-artificial-intelligence-effect. Accessed 11 June 2025. ###### “Response to WIRED’s Article on Wealth Inequality and AI’s Role in Personal Services.” Annie Advisor, annieadvisor.com/blog/response-to-wireds-article-on-wealth-inequality-and-ais-role-in-personal-services. Accessed 11 June 2025. ###### Samradni, and Samradni. “Are We Relying Too Much on AI?” Analytics Insight, 27 Nov. 2024, www.analyticsinsight.net/artificial-intelligence/are-we-relying-too-much-on-ai. Accessed 11 June 2025. ###### Simmons, Lee. “In An Age of Ubiquitous AI, What Does It Mean to Be Human?” Stanford Graduate School of Business, 14 Oct. 2022, www.gsb.stanford.edu/insights/age-ubiquitous-ai-what-does-it-mean-be-human. Accessed 11 June 2025. ###### Staff, Coursera. “5 Benefits of AI to Know in 2025 (+ 3 Risks to Watch Out For).” Coursera, 10 June 2025, www.coursera.org/articles/benefits-of-ai?msockid=1253233d6550650a2101365b64fb649c. Accessed 11 June 2025. ###### Uniyal, Mohit. “Artificial Intelligence Vs Human Intelligence - Key Differences.” Scaler Blog, 14 Oct. 2024, www.scaler.com/blog/artificial-intelligence-vs-human-intelligence/#will-ai-replace-humans. Accessed 11 June 2025. --- ### Exploring the Marvin Nichols Reservoir Proposal: Yay or Nay? URL: https://youthstemline.com/exploring-the-marvin-nichols-reservoir-proposal-yay-or-nay/ Last updated: 2026-06-11T03:40:53.000Z By Bela Koganti \~ 6 minutes --- The proposed Marvin Nichols Reservoir, which would occupy over 72,000 acres in Northeast Texas, has been in the works since 1968\. However, with Texas’ more-imminent-than-ever water crisis, it’s recently gained more and more traction— and just as much controversy. # What is it? The proposed Marvin Nichols Reservoir would occupy the Sulphur River Basin and supply drinking water to the Dallas-Fort Worth area. With a plethora of available water from the basin and a low estimated water cost, the reservoir first appeared in Texas’ 1968 State Water Plan as the Naples Reservoir; then, it was proposed in the 1984, 1990, and 1997 state water plans as the Marvin Nichols Reservoir. In 1997, the 75th Texas Legislature passed Senate Bill 1, which divided Texas into 16 regions with local representatives to develop water plans. Since then, renditions of the reservoir have been recommended in eleven regional and state water plans. While the Texas Legislature designated the reservoir site as a > “Site of unique value for the construction of a reservoir.” In 2007, the Region D Regional Water Planning Group voted against it due to predicted negative impacts on agricultural, timber, and natural resources, as well as on local economies. # Why’s it taking so long? First of all, it can take at least 15-20 years to receive a permit for a new lake or reservoir. The reservoir didn’t make it into the State Water Plan (under the name Marvin Nichols) until 1984, and, by 2001 (17 years later), the project was facing strong pushback from northeast Texans. While the 2021 Region C Regional Water Plan and the 2022 State Water Plan believe the reservoir should be ready by 2050, the Bois d’Arc Lake reservoir, another controversial and large project, took just 18 years to implement. Well, we already passed the 18 year mark—24 years ago! Regional Texas water planners stress that these projects must be operational in a timely manner. In other words, they need to happen before shortages occur- not after a drought is already underway. So, we can expect a 2050 completion unless a future water plan indicates otherwise. # What’s happening with Texas’ water crisis? But why do we even *need* the reservoir in the first place? I mean, we’re obviously running out of water, but here’s why. Texas’ Region C, made up of Arlington, Carrollton, Dallas, Denton, Fort Worth, Frisco, Garland, Irving, Mckinney, Plano, Richardson, and Frisco, is rapidly growing in population. It’s predicted to grow by nearly 6,000,000 people from 2030 to 2080, and with more people comes more water demand, which would increase by around 1,000,000 acre-feet by 2080\. Even with conservation tactics outlined in the Region C Water Plan, Region C would still lack around 1,000,000 acre-feet per year. For example, Fort Worth plans to use more wastewater, so it needs to expand its water treatment plants to treat nearly 830,000,000 gallons of water per day by 2080\. However, around ⅓ of the water would have to come from new reservoirs, and that’s where Marvin Nichols comes in. Of course, it would not only supply water to Fort Worth—many cities in region C likely have similar plans for Marvin Nichols. # How will Texans be affected? What’s the controversy? Alright, let’s get to the downsides. Although the reservoir would help some of Texas’ most populous cities, the Region C crew, it would destroy around 72,000 acres of rural land in northeast Texas through flooding. And that means wetlands destroyed, jobs gone, and history killed. Bottomland hardwood forests are Texas’ most biologically diverse ecosystems; however, from the nineteenth century to now, only ¼ of East Texas’ bottomland hardwood forests still stand. But guess what—they make up 30,000 of the 72,000 acres that Marvin Nichols plans to destroy. Plus, because the forests house so many different animal species, the reservoir would endanger wildlife already threatened in Texas, like black bears. And since Marvin Nichols’ construction would flood so much working land, local farmers, loggers, ranchers, and livestock ranchers would very-likely lose their jobs. School districts would be wiped, Native American historical sites and family cemeteries would be destroyed, and families who’ve lived on the land for centuries would be kicked out. Although the aforementioned Region C Water Plan tactics aren’t quite enough, if Region C goes above the conservation levels it outlines, then it could save the entirety of the water that Marvin Nichols would provide. So, the reservoir’s proposal raises a debate of the merits of destroying livelihoods, habitats, and history to supply even more water to some of Texas’ most populated and water-consuming cities. # Is the reservoir really the best solution? Although water costs are estimated to be relatively low once the reservoir is built, the construction of Marvin Nichols has been estimated to cost seven-billion dollars. Yup, $7,000,000,000\. That’s around $97,222 per acre. To revisit our earlier comparison, the Bois d’Arc Lake reservoir cost around $1,600,000,000 for 16,640 acres—that’s about $96,154 per acre. Both reservoirs are incredibly expensive, but one has passed and the other hasn’t. Let’s look at the cost of the Region C Water Plan’s conservation tactics. (Table from Bryan McMath’s Marvin Nichols Reservoir Project Feasibility Review) ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-jpeg-w-1024.jpg) Bryan McMath / Marvin Nichols Reservoir Project Feasibility Review / Page 22 For Region C, every tactic costs immensely less than Marvin Nichols. Even by using all the tactics together, water for Region C would cost just $3,666 per acre-foot, a sharp decrease from Marvin Nichols’ construction asking for $97,222 per acre. And although only doing these tactics would leave Region C deficient of 1,000,000 acre-feet of water per year, citizens could use the strategies more aggressively with the surplus of money to fix the lack. Marvin Nichols is not the only solution to Region C’s drinking water shortage, and it’s certainly not the best one. Let’s save the people, animals, habitats, homes, jobs, and history living in northeast Texas, and let’s do so by speaking up. If the project hadn’t received so much pushback in the early 2000s, it very well could have already been implemented or be even closer to implementation. So, we must continue to push back because our voices—Region C’s and Regions A through Z’s alike—are the most powerful tools we have to stop Marvin Nichols. --- # References ###### Bois d'Arc Lake. (n.d.). About the lake. Bois d'Arc Lake. https://boisdarclake.org/about-the-lake/ ###### Hovland, A. (2024, October 31). East Texas water group considers controversial Marvin Nichols Reservoir project. Texas Scorecard. https://texasscorecard.com/local/east-texas-water-group-considers-controversial-marvin-nichols-reservoir-project/ ###### Lopez, N. (2025, May 20). North Texas needs new reservoirs, water planners say. But plan faces stiff opposition. Kera News. https://www.keranews.org/environment-nature/2025-05-20/north-texas-needs-new-reservoirs-water-planners-say-but-plan-faces-stiff-opposition ###### Marvin Nichols Reservoir Project Feasibility Review \[PDF\]. (2025). https://www.twdb.texas.gov/publications/reports/special\_legislative\_reports/doc/Marvin-Nichols-Reservoir-Project-Feasibility-Review.pdf ###### Satija, N. (2015, January 8). Controversial Marvin Nichols Reservoir stays in state plan. The Texas Tribune. https://www.texastribune.org/2015/01/08/twdb-marvin-nichols-decision/ ###### Texas Living Waters. (n.d.). Case study: Proposed Marvin Nichols Reservoir. Texas Living Waters. https://texaslivingwaters.org/state-and-regional-water-plan/case-study-proposed-marvin-nichols-reservoir/ --- ### Science Behind Drugs URL: https://youthstemline.com/science-behind-drugs/ Last updated: 2026-06-26T06:38:53.000Z By Charlotte Lee \~ 8 minutes --- # What are Drugs? - Drugs are chemical substances that can alter or affect the structure or function of the body. - They can be used for medicinal purposes or recreational purposes, as well as be addictive or non-addictive. - They can be classified as stimulants, depressants, opioids, hallucinogens, cannabinoids, and inhalants. # Why are Certain Drugs Addictive? Drugs interfere with the ways that neurons interact with neurotransmitters. Some drugs, like marijuana, mimic the neurotransmitters in the brain, which allows them to activate certain neurons. Marijuana is a type of cannabinoid, which is a class of chemical compounds from the cannabis plant that originated in Asia. The cannabis plant was first used to make ropes and textiles, but was later used for medicinal and spiritual purposes. Additionally, they can be medicinal, psychoactive, or non-psychoactive and stay in the body for 3-4 days after use. THC, which is the main active component in marijuana, binds to the cannabinoid receptors in the brain. This binding mimics neurotransmitters and triggers a release of dopamine, and increased use of marijuana leads to more dopamine being released, creating a reinforcement loop that leads to addiction. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-3-w-1024.png) Medical marijuana / Harvard Health Publishing / Harvard Medical School Although the chemicals in the drugs mimic the neurotransmitters, they are not exactly the same. This causes them to send abnormal messages and, in the case of some drugs like heroin, send an increase of dopamine because they bind to and activate opioid receptors. This also blocks the transmission of pain and causes a large amount of pain relief. Additionally, it can lead to dependence because it causes the brain to reduce the number of endorphins and the sensitivity of opioid receptors. Over time, the brain and body become dependent on external stimulants like heroin to feel any sense of happiness. Heroin, another narcotic, is a very strong, highly addictive drug that comes from morphine, which is extracted from a part of the opium plant. It can cause severe withdrawal symptoms, overdose, liver and kidney disease, and many other negative side effects. Heroin can come in the form of a white or brownish powder, or a black, sticky substance. It is typically injected, snorted, or smoked and considered a Schedule I controlled substance in the U.S. and most other countries. That means that the drug is illegal, has a high potential for abuse, and is not accepted for any type of medical use. Cocaine, another popular narcotic, comes from the leaves of a coca plant, native to South America, most commonly, Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia. Traditionally, people in the Andes chewed or brewed coca leaves as a medicine and stimulant; however, industrial processing has made their effects more potent, creating a drug trade. Cocaine is highly addictive and can cause serious health concerns like depression, bleeding in the lungs, and inflammation. Cocaine is illegal in the US, as it hijacks the brain’s reward system, causing a flood of dopamine and other neurotransmitters, but it can be used for medical purposes with restrictions. Over time, the brain and body become dependent on cocaine to feel any sense of happiness. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-4-w-730.png) New Ingredient in Cocaine Vaccine Shows Promise in Mouse Study / Duke Health These drugs affect the ganglia, a part of the brain responsible for relaying pleasurable effects and forming routines. The over-stimulation of a nerve cluster can lead to a feeling of euphoria or a dopamine release. The large amounts of dopamine make the brain connect drugs to the good feeling and teach the brain to continue using drugs. However, the ganglia are also the reason the drug’s high fades over time, as they adapt to its constant presence and become less sensitive to its effects. Drugs are more addictive than natural activities that release dopamine, like working out, because drug misuse can lead to fewer neurotransmitters being released in general. This makes a person’s overall ability to feel pleasure for regular activities lower, making them feel flat or unmotivated in general. This also leads to people needing more and more drugs to feel a normal level of reward. While many drugs are plant-derived and addictive, the rise of synthetic drugs is creating an unprecedented danger due to unnatural chemicals increasing the potency and unpredictability of the drug. # QUICK CAUTIONS: Synthetic Drugs - They are often illegal and have very little quality control, which makes the potency and effects of the drug unpredictable. - Synthetic drugs are easily contaminated with other hazardous materials, poisons, or drugs. Untested stimulants and chemicals may also exist in the drug, where the long-term side effects are unknown. For example, many drugs are often laced with the synthetic drug fentanyl, which is very strong and can increase the high, causing consumers to keep buying the drug. However, fentanyl is extremely deadly and a little amount can be fatal, leading to an increase in overdose deaths. - Manufacturers constantly modify the chemical structure of the drugs to increase the high and addictiveness of the drug as well as evade authorities. This also makes it harder for medical professionals to treat overdoses or reactions because they are not familiar with the drug. - Synthetic drugs are often sold under misleading names with colorful packaging to evade authorities, which can lead to accidental consumption. For example, Spice and K2 are common names for a lab-made drug that mimics the THC in marijuana by mimicking marijuana’s chemical structure. It is often sold under the name of herbal incense or potpourri to sound more enticing and evade authorities. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-jpeg-w-1024-1.jpg) Synthetic drugs: Don't 'spice' it up / Joint Base Langley-Eustis --- # References ###### Australian Government. (2019, July 17). What Are Drugs? Australian Government Department of Health and Aged Care; Australian Government. https://www.health.gov.au/topics/drugs/about-drugs/what-are-drugs ###### Better Health Channel. (2019). Synthetic drugs. Better Health Channel. https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/HealthyLiving/synthetic-drugs ###### Content Background: Why Do Plants Make Drugs? – PEP. (n.d.). https://sites.duke.edu/thepepproject/module-5-why-do-plants-make-drugs-for-humans/content-background-why-do-plants-make-drugs/ ###### DEA. (2021). Coca. Museum.dea.gov. https://museum.dea.gov/exhibits/online-exhibits/cannabis-coca-and-poppy-natures-addictive-plants/coca ###### Karimi, A., Maedeh Majlesi, & Mahmoud Rafieian-Kopaei. (2015). Herbal versus synthetic drugs; beliefs and facts. Journal of Nephropharmacology, 4(1), 27\. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5297475/ ###### Manual, B. (2014, October 17). Marijuana’s History: How One Plant Spread Through the World. Live Science; Live Science. https://www.livescience.com/48337-marijuana-history-how-cannabis-travelled-world.htm ###### National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. (2019). Cannabis (Marijuana) and Cannabinoids: What You Need to Know. NCCIH. https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/cannabis-marijuana-and-cannabinoids-what-you-need-to-know ###### Understanding the language of addiction. (2019, June 26). Harvard Health. https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/understanding-the-language-of-addiction --- ### The Pinnacle of Motorsport: F1's Sustainable Future URL: https://youthstemline.com/the-pinnacle-of-motorsport-f1s-sustainable-future/ Last updated: 2026-06-11T03:42:00.000Z By Aniela Coughlin \~ 7 minutes --- Formula 1 has been given many names. From the “Pinnacle of Motorsport” to the "Motorsport soap opera,” its high stakes and thrilling speeds have earned it many nicknames. Most recently, Formula 1 has also been dubbed a “tech lab on wheels”.1 This nickname is well-deserved, as the innovations brought to F1 in order to make the cars quicker or more efficient often carry over into every-day road vehicles. One example of this is the carbon-fibre monocoque chassis introduced by McLaren in 1981\. This light but durable material is now ubiquitous; it is the basis of almost every supercar and is used in everything from spacecraft to golf clubs. This leads us to reflect on just how much Formula 1 has influenced our daily lives, and how different our world would be today without it. For decades, Formula 1 has served as a model for elite performance in road vehicles and has sparked a passion for engineering in many people. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-w-1024-1.png) Ferrari drivers Sainz and Leclerc shake down new F1-75 car at Fiorano / F1 But with this attention comes a great responsibility for Formula 1\. It must set the standard toward which the rest of the automobile industry strives. With global warming becoming an increasingly pressing issue in the global community, Formula 1 must find ways to keep racing at high speeds that are also sustainable for our environment. In 2026, Formula 1 seeks to radically change its regulations in order to reach its goal of going 100% carbon neutral by 2030.2 What do these new regulations mean for the sport, and, most importantly, what do they mean for us? The new 2026 regulations encompass a wide variety of details, from aerodynamics to tyre size, and everything in between. Most of these will not have a tremendous impact on everyday road cars, as these regulations are focused more on getting these supercars to be even more “super”. One major change that does impact standard vehicles, though, is the new fuel regulations. Formula 1 cars use a hybrid of electric and hydrocarbon-fueled energy. Each of the (soon to be) eleven Formula 1 teams outsources their fuel to a third party. Ferrari famously partners with Shell, for instance, and Aston Martin works with Aramco. Throughout 2025, the petrol used in Formula 1 cars had to be ten percent bioethanol, a green alcohol fuel derived from biomass. But this requirement goes away in 2026, when the teams will have to supply their cars with 100% sustainable fuels.3 This means that no fossil carbons may be used, and the teams must produce net-zero carbon cars: they will have to extract carbon from pre-existing sources, instead of adding more into the atmosphere. What does this look like? Well, air-capture technologies for carbon already exist, but these are inefficient since only 0.04% of the air is carbon dioxide. Teams are instead looking toward non-food bio sources of carbon, such as excess from the wood or paper industries, or municipal waste. A caveat to this, however, is that they cannot compete with existing food sources. In an interview about Formula 1’s sustainable fuel plans, F1’s chief technology officer Pat Symonds explains, > "You can make this fuel out of potato peelings, but not out of potatoes." Sustainable fuels are, ironically, still not financially sustainable options for “layman” car manufacturers. 100% sustainable fuel is much more expensive to produce than standard fossil fuels, which cost about $63 per barrel compared with the $300 for the sustainable fuel. Add that to the cost of experimenting with and researching new technologies, and you are looking at a budget that far exceeds what the average car manufacturer can afford. This is why Formula 1 is the optimal test hamster for sustainable technologies: its teams deal with huge budgets, which are designed to be spent on innovative technologies. Plus, in Formula 1, the goal is to produce the most efficient and high-performing car possible, not the cheapest. With some luck, these innovations in the way carbon fuels are sourced in Formula 1 will trickle down into the “real world." Another major change to occur in 2026 is the removal of the MGU-H unit. This component is part of the Energy Recovery System on an F1 car, along with the MGU-K and the energy store. The energy store is essentially a large lithium-ion battery that stores energy recovered from breaking or excess exhaust. The MGUs (Motor Generator Units) act as both motors and generators, depending on what the car necessitates. This works because providing energy to the motors causes them to spin, and spinning the motors causes them to generate energy. The MGU-K (Motor Generator Unit Kinetic) works alongside the car’s engine to provide extra power to the car. It harvests excess energy from braking, when the MGU-K is spinning solely due to the rotational energy of the wheels, and the still-rotating magnets inside the motor provide energy to the battery for later use. The MGU-H (Motor Generator Unit Heat), to be removed in 2026, supplies the same energy storage system. It works alongside the turbocharger so that when exhaust gas passes through the generator turbine of the MGU-H, the turbine spins, transforming kinetic energy into electric energy. The MGU-H can also supply electric energy to the turbocharger, and thus eliminate turbo lag in the engine.5 ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-1-w-1024.png) Mercedes reveals first use of F1's MGU-H in road cars / motorsport The MGU-H does serve a purpose, but only in the context of Formula 1\. Everyday road cars do not travel at fast enough speeds to require a component to diminish turbolag; in fact, most hybrid cars do not have a turbocharger at all. This, coupled with the fact that the MGU-H is incredibly expensive to produce, is why the MGU-H will be removed from F1 cars in 2026. But with the switch to a 50/50 ICE-electric engine in 2026, F1 cars still need an energy recovery system to boost performance and efficiency. The MGU-K is much more affordable to produce than the MGU-H because it is mechanically simpler. To compensate for the loss of the MGU-H, the MGU-K output nearly triples in 2026, with a jump from 120 kWh to 350 kWh. The impacts of this on the “real” world are that now everyday road cars have a realistic exemplar of what an efficient hybrid car looks like, and can look to F1 cars to minimize their carbon footprint. Formula 1 is more than just a sport. At the pinnacle of speed, its cars are the role models for the maximized efficiency and performance to which most cars aspire. F1 cars have the responsibility to set the example for others by reducing their carbon footprint, and this is just what the 2026 regulations aim to do. With the implementation of 100% sustainable fuel and increased reliance on electrical power, Formula 1 is pioneering technologies that have the potential to lead the world to a more sustainable future. --- # Bibliography ###### Explained: The chemistry behind F1’s sustainable fuel future.” Race Fans, 25 March 2023, [Explained: The chemistry behind F1’s sustainable fuel future · RaceFans](https://www.racefans.net/2023/03/25/explained-the-chemistry-behind-f1s-sustainable-fuel-future/?ref=youthstemline.com). Accessed 15 November 2025. ###### “FIA unveils Formula 1 regulations for 2026 and beyond featuring more agile cars and active aerodynamics.” FIA, 06 June 2024, [FIA unveils Formula 1 regulations for 2026 and beyond featuring more agile cars and active aerodynamics | Formula 1®](https://www.formula1.com/en/latest/article/fia-unveils-formula-1-regulations-for-2026-and-beyond-featuring-more-agile.75qJiYOHXgeJqsVQtDr2UB?ref=youthstemline.com). Accessed 15 November 2025. ###### “Formula One Isn’t Just Racing – It’s A Tech Lab On Wheels." DCB Editorial, 26 August 2025, [Formula One Isn’t Just Racing-It’s A Tech Lab On Wheels](https://dailycarblog.com/2025/08/formula-one-isnt-just-racing-its-a-tech-lab-on-wheels/?ref=youthstemline.com). Accessed 09 November 2025. ###### “The game-changer in F1’s 2026 fuel evolution.” The Race, 17 September 2025, [The game-changer in F1's 2026 fuel revolution - The Race](https://www.the-race.com/formula-1/game-changer-f1-fuel-revolution/?ref=youthstemline.com#:~:text=The%20removal%20of%20the%20requirement%20for%20it%20to,%22In%202026%2C%20the%20alcohol%20is%20no%20longer%20mandated.). Accessed 23 November 2025. ###### “What Is ERS In F1? (How The MGU-H And MGU-K Work).” Flow Racers. Accessed 23 November 2025. --- ### A Deep Dive into Computer Aided Design URL: https://youthstemline.com/a-deep-dive-into-computer-aided-design/ Last updated: 2026-06-11T03:42:13.000Z By Grace Liu \~10 minutes --- Computer Aided Design, or CAD, is essentially a platform for users to design, modify, and analyze a digital model. Its speed and efficiency rival traditional design methods, and the capabilities of CAD are continuously growing as technology advances. It is a space for unlimited creativity and endless possibility, and it is crucial to have an in-depth understanding of CAD to be able to fully harness its potential. # How does it work? At the center of a CAD software program is its graphics kernel, or the processing core. It is a component of the graphical user interface (GUI) which has extensive uses on electronic devices beyond the capabilities of CAD. The GUI takes input from the user and transfers the data to the graphics kernel, which will then generate the geometries and display them on screen. # Types of CAD ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-9-edited.png) There are two main categories of CAD: 2D and 3D. 2D designing is more similar to digital art with a different set of tools, often seen with digital drawing and sketching. The key difference is the use of measurement and parameters, a tool that sets a variable to a certain value in a design to be referenced later in other constraints. Parameters are extremely beneficial to create an adjustable, flexible design. 2D designing with Computer Aided Design is commonly used for landscaping, floorplans, and blueprints. On the other hand, 3D modeling offers more complex and realistic designs, and will be the focus of this article. It comes in tons of different forms, including direct modeling, surface modeling, 3D wireframe, and freeform CAD. Direct modeling is a type of CAD that doesn’t contain parameters and purely relies on the pushing and pulling of surfaces on unconstrained objects. It allows more freedom than parametric modeling, but becomes much more difficult when needing to adjust a design. For example, say you need to make an object twice as large as it currently is. In parametric modeling you would simply need to enlarge the base parameters for certain lengths that you set, and then all constraints using those parameters would automatically adjust. In direct modeling you would need to manually scale each surface to size up the object. Another form of CAD is surface modeling, which focuses on manipulating intricate external surfaces, more like a shell instead of a full 3D object. It uses curves and lines defined by mathematical formulas, calculated by the computer using input from the graphical workspace in the CAD program. Surface modeling helps display texture, material, and overall aesthetics for the design. A step down from surface modeling is 3D wireframe, which goes further to remove the surfaces on the object and models 3D structures using only its lines and curves. Without any actual surfaces or bodies, the design appears to be the skeleton of the object(s) or a wire framework, hence the name. It acts as the first 3D visualization of concept or design, providing a foundation that can be built into a full model later on. These designs are often the first pitch to an outside source that offers feedback on the base sketch, an efficient and effective method to communicate a design idea without having to fully create it. A unique but often overlooked type of CAD is freeform CAD. It acts more like clay, letting the user be more artistic and creative with their design. It utilizes digital brushes or styluses to sculpt the object, with a different set of tools and abilities in the workspace compared to the more common forms of CAD. Freeform CAD often involves the use of haptic devices instead of a mouse and keyboard. These devices will transmit the digital output from the computer to a physical attachment on the device through touch sensation that allows the user to “feel” their design as they sculpt. The physical attachment typically mimics brushes or scrapers, and can sometimes even be equipped with vibration. # Different CAD platforms: The foundation of every CAD platform is similar, but each one has different unique features. Getting an overview of the platforms can help the user determine which one to choose that best suits their needs. Five of the most common ones include: Autodesk Fusion 360, Onshape, Blender, TinkerCAD, and SolidWorks. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-11-edited-1.png) September 4, 2019 Product Update – What’s New / Keqing Song / Autodesk Fusion **©** Autodesk contains a multitude of CAD programs, but their most popular and versatile one is Fusion 360\. It’s an industry level CAD software and combines different tools and abilities all into one place, allowing for (unlimited) creation. Fusion 360 contains a variety of workspaces including: Design and Generative Design, Rendering, Simulation, Animation, Electronics, and 2D Drawing. Just within the Design workspace Fusion 360 has hundreds of techniques to choose from when building like freeform, surface, parametric, and direct modeling along with sheet metal, mesh, plastic, etc. Its software platform allows for smooth collaboration by storing all files directly in the cloud and easy updates across designs, reducing the amount of time it takes to combine multiple designs. Fusion 360 is flexible, perfect for rapid prototyping, with an extensive tool kit that contains multiple shortcuts to make designing and modifying faster. Autodesk also has a free education license for students and educators, making it accessible to a larger audience. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-10-edited.png) Onshape, The CAD Of The Future / Nuts and Bolts / Substack **©** OnShape is another one of the leading CAD platforms in the industry today, a top competitor with Fusion 360\. Onshape includes diverse customization tools like FeatureScript, a programming language specific to Onshape that allows users to create custom CAD features or shortcuts usable in their designs. For example, you can code a custom feature that can create a mold on a separate body for any design, reducing the time it takes to manually create a mold each time. FeatureScript lays the groundwork for OnShape’s modeling and standard functions like Extrude, Fillet, and Helix are already written in as FeatureScript functions when you begin to branch out and create your own. Onshape has a built in Product Data Management (PDM) system which allows teams to edit the same design simultaneously, a feature not many CAD platforms can achieve. Alongside increasing efficiency, this also makes it easier to store parts and assemblies by eliminating files. You can long into your account anywhere, and have full access to all your designs in OnShape. Another unique tidbit about OnShape is that it does not require manual updates for the application, all updates run automatically in the background so you don’t have to worry about running the correct version of OnShape when fixing bugs in your design. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-12-w-1024.png) Beginner’s Guide to 3D Character Creation Using Blender / DEZPAD © Blender is a slightly different CAD platform; it focuses on and perfects the aesthetics of 3D modeling. It’s best for rendering and shading, animation, simulation, visual effects, and game development. Blender consists of 2 main rendering engines: Eevee and Cycles. Eevee is a real-time engine, best for quick rendering for fast iterations. In short, a real-time rendering engine computes the lighting, materials, plus other components of the image continuously at about 30-120 frames per second and provides an interactive output which allows the user to adjust the settings. Cycles is a path-tracing engine with high quality and realistic renders, but takes a much longer time. A “path-tracing” rendering engine means that the program simulates the physical behavior of light rays on the object frame by frame to create a realistic image. Cycles would typically be used for the final render, pristine and life-like, whereas Eevee would be used in-between iterations to help make improvements. The extensive simulation workspace in Blender can mimic unique bodies in nature like fluids, smoke, and fire. Another benefit of Blender is that it’s completely free, perfect for hobbyists or students. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-14-w-1024.png) TinkerCAD Basics: A Hands-On Workshop for Beginners! / San Carlos Life **©** TinkerCAD is a much simpler CAD platform, but that also makes it best for beginners with its clear, straight-forward layout. It consists of a couple tabs with a set collection of 3D shapes along with other tools. It includes basic electronics simulation and serves as a good introduction to circuits and coding a real mechanism instead of just on a computer program. TinkerCAD is very popular in schools as it has built-in lessons and hands-on projects along with its easy format. Since it was designed to teach beginners, TinkerCAD has limited capabilities. It doesn’t have complex curves and restricts freedom on building custom shapes, as well as lower resolution models. TinkerCAD does not have advanced rendering, simulation, or animation so it might not be the best option for realistic modeling. These intentional restrictions keep TinkerCAD kid-friendly and focus on teaching the basics of 3D modeling before transitioning to something more advanced. It’s also compatible with online models in a specific file format, so you can learn from and transfer designs on the internet to TinkerCAD. It’s good for simple 3D printing and laser cutting, allowing for a full introduction to the basics of engineering for beginners. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-16-w-1024.png) Solidworks 2025 / DEVELOP3D © SolidWorks is an industry grade CAD platform, and in a lot of aspects similar to Fusion 360\. A key difference is that SolidWorks targets large engineering companies like Tesla and Lockheed Martin while Fusion 360 focuses on hobbyists, students, or startups that want a simple, but effective CAD platform to create 3D designs not quite as complex as a plane. SolidWorks makes drawing complicated 2D blueprints with details and labels much easier. It can utilize views, measurements, and calculations from the 3D design, and then transfer them to the 2D drawing. SolidWorks has a powerful simulation workspace for motion, stress, heat, and real-life scenarios that designs like cars, planes, or bridges need to withstand. Comparatively, SolidWorks is one of the more sophisticated 3D designing platforms and requires time to get familiar with, but it also offers lessons, tutorials, and even courses to help shorten the learning curve. # Real-world applications of CAD ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-17-w-900.png) Building Information Modeling (BIM) Explained / KENNMAR © The most common place you see Computer Aided Design is in engineering, where it has become integrated throughout the design process, from designing and prototyping to manufacturing the product. It’s also present in architecture, so much so that there’s a type of CAD created specifically for 3D models of buildings. Building Information Modeling (BIM) is a CAD platform that creates a 3D model of all the components in a real-world building, and also replicates the entire timeline of the building from construction to long-term maintenance. It’s a digital version of the entire process of the building, and helps to check safety and functionality beforehand. CAD also pops up in unexpected places, like interior and exterior designing, fashion, and game design. Interior and exterior designing involves much of the same processes as industrial design, although with less moving parts in the assembly. Fashion mostly uses 2D CAD to make the drawing and sketching process faster and more efficient. Game design, as mentioned when discussing Blender, uses mostly the design, animation, and rendering workspaces in 3D CAD to make their characters and objects look as realistic as possible. 3D modeling can also be seen in medicine, specifically with imaging and x-rays. Machines in hospitals are being equipped with the ability to reconstruct 3D models of bones and structures within the human body, helping doctors to better treat the patient. --- ### Straight to the Point: The Chemistry Behind Permanent Hair Straightening URL: https://youthstemline.com/straight-to-the-point-the-chemistry-behind-permanent-hair-straightening/ Last updated: 2026-06-12T23:40:47.000Z By Aravli Paliwal \~8 minutes --- Growing up with thick, unruly curls, I rarely felt comfortable wearing my hair down at events without straightening it completely. The frizz felt impossible to tame, the ends felt rough and bushy, and even up in a ponytail, my hair still looked like it had survived a whirlwind. Now, I’m writing this all in the past-tense, because just this week I decided to undergo a permanent Japanese hair straightening treatment. Usually, when I mention this, people fixate on the word “permanent,” followed by “but your natural hair was so pretty” or “why would you do that?” These comments don’t bother me too much because my hair looks and feels 100x better than it did previously. But what really gets under my skin is just how much time and research it took to find the right treatment option, thanks to the internet’s endless muddle of conflicting information about hair straightening. # There are a bajillion different options- Which one is right for me? As soon as I clicked “enter” after searching “permanent hair straightening,” I was introduced to 3 different treatments that all sounded, well, exactly the same. To the untrained reader, a Japanese hair straightening treatment, Brazilian blowout, and Korean Keratin treatment sound like different countries each decided to stick their name in front of the exact same thing, but after doing a couple hours of research, it wasn’t the pros that stuck out to me- it was the cons. # Brazilian Blowout Uterine cancer. Ovarian cancer. Leukemia. Well, it sounds like I should be showing up to the hair salon in a hazmat suit if these are the side effects- so is this actually true? Short answer- yes. Everyone’s hair is composed primarily of Keratin, a protein structure held together by disulfide bonds (S-S) → (this determines if your hair is curly or straight to begin with) and weaker hydrogen bonds (easily broken down by water). ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-2-w-884.png) **Diagram 1* Unlike Japanese hair straightening treatments, Brazilian blowouts do NOT permanently break down and restructure these S-S bonds, so the straightening effect is more temporary. The straightened results typically last around 3-4 months; though, the thicker and healthier your hair is, the longer the treatment lasts. However, after treatment at the salon, the hair is never pin-straight, and throughout this 3-4 month period, your hair gradually gains its natural curl pattern back. After thoroughly washing the hair and exposing its cuticle, Brazilian blowout stylists begin to apply a solution that includes aldehydes like methylene glycol. This is where the cancer sirens go off. When brands claim that their treatment is formaldehyde-free, what they don’t understand is that this methylene glycol releases formaldehyde when heated, and formaldehyde exposure is known to increase the risk of all the nasty cancers that Google warns you about from the beginning. The following chemical equation explains exactly how formaldehyde gas fumes are produced during Brazilian blowouts. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-3-w-866.png) **Diagram 2* This heat is introduced when the stylist flat-irons hair at \~450°F. Instead of breaking the preexisting disulfide bonds and reforming them, the treatment adds new chemical S-S bridges that hold the hair in a straighter shape temporarily, with a carcinogenic formaldehyde byproduct. # Keratin Treatment When researching different straightening treatments, Keratin treatments are often the most difficult to understand because there are two different techniques. In both treatments, a Keratin-based solution (primarily peptides and protein because “keratin” is literally just the protein that makes up your hair) is applied to the hair. Now after this, the stylist has two options: 1. They can continue by essentially replicating the Brazilian blowout and reintroducing the carcinogenic formaldehyde after flat-ironing the hair (same 3-4 month results, never achieve pin-straight hair). 2. They can go the formaldehyde-free route and only coat the hair’s cuticle in the Keratin-solution without taking further steps. This results in smoother, shinier hair with less frizz; however, this process does not chemically alter any disulfide bonds, and has practically no permanent straightening effect. # Japanese Hair Straightening Websites like to scare people by framing Japanese straightening treatments as the “nuclear option,” with “straight hair for *life*” and “no room for regrets.” While it is more of a commitment than the other straightening treatments because it *actually* lasts no matter what hair texture you have, it is by no means “lifelong.” Furthermore, Japanese straightening is the only treatment that doesn’t produce carcinogenic formaldehyde as a byproduct, and instead uses a safer ammonium thioglycolate. The strongly alkaline ammonium thioglycolate directly attacks disulfide bonds and completely restructures them: ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-4-w-596.png) Josh Bloom / American Council on Science and Health This “weaker” hair is easily manipulated into the straightened shape you want, and after the solution has set, the hair is rinsed with a 0.5% hydrogen peroxide neutralizer (drugstore hydrogen peroxide used to treat cuts and wounds is around 3%). The hydrogen peroxide forms new disulfide bonds that naturally fall straight. From this point on, many stylists begin to take “creative liberties” and begin to dump all sorts of expensive shampoos and conditioners on your hair while also warning you that the next 48 hours you cannot wash, put it in clips or ponytail holders, eat, sleep, or breathe around your hair- basically saying “if anything goes wrong in the next 48 hours, the blame is 100% on YOU.” This is why it is extremely important to have a professional stylist who is familiar with their product and takes accountability when necessary. It’s also why I am so grateful for Bijin Salon’s Michelle, who has 22 years of experience under her belt. > “With the amount of information that stylists now have readily available online, there should be no excuses for professionals not to know their products.” -Michelle She told me straight-up that this 48-hour policy is completely made up to strip stylists of accountability: Scientifically, after the neutralizer has been introduced, there is no reason why you cannot go home and wash/put up your hair immediately. Bijin Japanese Permanent Hair Straightening is located in Farmers Branch, Texas, and you can find their website [here](https://japanesepermanenthairstraightening.com/?ref=youthstemline.com). While Japanese straightening sounds great, there are still a couple of things to keep in mind. As I mentioned earlier, this is definitely a commitment. Not lifelong, but if you want your natural hair back, you're going to have to *grow* it out- *completely*. This includes the awkward stage where your roots are curly while the ends are pin straight. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-5-w-1024.png) Better and Worse Case Scenarios / Straight at Roots and End Curls / TikTok © Additionally, Japanese straightening requires regular maintenance. Depending on how fast your hair grows and what your curl pattern is, root touch-ups are typically needed at least once a year. # Quick Recap: → If you are committed to getting a hair straightening treatment, the safest and longest-lasting option is by far the Japanese treatment. → If you are not interested in changing your curl pattern but want softer, less frizzy hair, the formaldehyde-free keratin treatment is for you. # General Things to Check for: 1. Watch out for sodium hydroxide (the main chemical in drain cleaner) → it’s a strong base commonly used to raise pH levels in popular haircare. When overused, it can force the hair’s cuticle open and permanently damage keratin structure. Brands rely on it because if a product’s pH drops too low, preservatives fail, and the product’s shelf life is severely compromised. So while sodium hydroxide is often necessary, because concentrations are not disclosed, it’s important to pay attention to how your hair feels after using products that contain it. 2. The word "straightener" is often used too loosely when describing a wide array of retexturing treatments, leading many people to conflate straighteners with smoothers and relaxers. In reality, the difference is quite simple. Straighteners use a thioglycolate solution, while smoothers either coat the hair with chemical (like a Brazilian Blowout), or use glyoxylic acid after a sodium hydroxide shampoo. Relaxers, on the other hand, and purely sodium hydroxide. 3. “Keratin” products are largely a scam → theoretically, any hair product could be labeled “keratin” because keratin is simply what hair is made of; adding trace amounts of keratin to a product does not rebuild or restructure hair, it just temporarily coats it and doesn't really do anything at all. Claims that keratin products are “so good for your hair’s health” are usually marketing schemes. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-6-w-1024.png) 3 Must-Have Hair Products for the New Year / KeratinComplex © --- # References ###### American Council on Science and Health. (2018, April 21). What do perm chemicals and cystic fibrosis drugs have in common? Retrieved from[ ](https://www.acsh.org/news/2018/04/21/what-do-perm-chemicals-and-cystic-fibrosis-drugs-have-common-12844?utm%5Fsource=chatgpt.com)[https://www.acsh.org/news/2018/04/21/what-do-perm-chemicals-and-cystic-fibrosis-drugs-have-common-12844](https://www.acsh.org/news/2018/04/21/what-do-perm-chemicals-and-cystic-fibrosis-drugs-have-common-12844?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Color Wow. (n.d.). What is a hair cuticle? Retrieved from[ ](https://colorwowhair.com/blogs/all/what-is-a-hair-cuticle?srsltid=AfmBOopre5yB2FbyrucIX1A8%5FPbEIOOv2a6kudPZy7hQXLzsh-%5F6QXL9&utm%5Fsource=chatgpt.com)[https://colorwowhair.com/blogs/all/what-is-a-hair-cuticle?srsltid=AfmBOopre5yB2FbyrucIX1A8\_PbEIOOv2a6kudPZy7hQXLzsh-\_6QXL9](https://colorwowhair.com/blogs/all/what-is-a-hair-cuticle?srsltid=AfmBOopre5yB2FbyrucIX1A8%5FPbEIOOv2a6kudPZy7hQXLzsh-%5F6QXL9&ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Gavazzoni Dias, M. F., de Almeida, A. M., Cecato, P. M., Adriano, A. R., & Pichler, J. (2014). The Shampoo pH can Affect the Hair: Myth or Reality?. International journal of trichology, 6(3), 95–99\. [https://doi.org/10.4103/0974-7753.139078](https://doi.org/10.4103/0974-7753.139078?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Keratin Complex. (n.d.). 3 must-have hair products for the new year. Retrieved from[ ](https://keratincomplex.com/blogs/post/3-must-have-hair-products-for-the-new-year?srsltid=AfmBOoqDHCEha9yxfLvtUsxkvIr6Ys7J%5F-UcCwugTrzZRUZ6qnSPLDJu&utm%5Fsource=chatgpt.com)[https://keratincomplex.com/blogs/post/3-must-have-hair-products-for-the-new-year?srsltid=AfmBOoqDHCEha9yxfLvtUsxkvIr6Ys7J\_-UcCwugTrzZRUZ6qnSPLDJu](https://keratincomplex.com/blogs/post/3-must-have-hair-products-for-the-new-year?srsltid=AfmBOoqDHCEha9yxfLvtUsxkvIr6Ys7J%5F-UcCwugTrzZRUZ6qnSPLDJu&ref=youthstemline.com) ###### National Center for Biotechnology Information. (2021). Straight to the point: What do we know so far on hair straightening? International Journal of Cosmetic Science. Retrieved from[ ](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8280444/?utm%5Fsource=chatgpt.com)[https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8280444/](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8280444/?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (n.d.). Hair salons and stylists: background on hair smoothing products that could release formaldehyde. Retrieved from[ https://www.osha.gov/hair-salons/background](https://www.osha.gov/hair-salons/background?utm%5Fsource=chatgpt.com) ###### The Times of Israel. (n.d.). 17-year-old girl hospitalized for kidney failure after hair-straightening treatment. Retrieved from[ ](https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog%5Fentry/17-year-old-girl-hospitalized-for-kidney-failure-after-hair-straightening-treatment/?utm%5Fsource=chatgpt.com)[https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog\_entry/17-year-old-girl-hospitalized-for-kidney-failure-after-hair-straightening-treatment/](https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog%5Fentry/17-year-old-girl-hospitalized-for-kidney-failure-after-hair-straightening-treatment/?ref=youthstemline.com) --- Also, a special thank you to Michelle Moore at Bijin Salon, whose expertise offered valuable insight into the realities behind modern haircare! --- ### The Antichrist (Peter Thiel) is Frankenstein URL: https://youthstemline.com/the-antichrist-peter-thiel-is-frankenstein/ Last updated: 2026-06-11T03:49:45.000Z By Aravli Paliwal \~12 minutes --- When asked if he would “prefer the human race to endure” by podcaster Ross Douthat, billionaire Peter Thiel stumbles and hesitates, viscerally conflicted on a straightforward question. “Uh- well I- I don’t know, I would- I would, um” it takes Thiel around 19 seconds just to spit out a yes, and he quickly shifts the topic of discussion thereafter. So, is this another egotistical billionaire who believes he is superior to the plebian human race? While seemingly affirmative on the surface, a deeper examination of Thiel’s esoteric ideologies—when paired with his immense wealth—reveals their capacity to influence millions. # Who is Peter Thiel? Co-founder of PayPal and Palantir, partner of Founders Fund, a venture capital firm with a notable portfolio including SpaceX, OpenAI, and hundreds of other companies, and the primary source of funding for Vice President JD Vance's campaign, Peter Thiel’s power oscillates across many sectors. While the wealth he has amassed from these investments has given him a platform that guarantees an audience for his views, it’s often those very views that generate even more attention. Over the last year, Thiel has orchestrated a series of private lectures in San Francisco where he discusses the antichrist and inevitability of Armageddon. In short, he believes that an antichrist figure (modeled after philosophers who believe in policing and restricting technology) will enact extreme regulations on AI, as well as fearmonger the public with threats of nuclear war, climate change, and the possibility of World War III to consolidate supreme power. He goes on to note that an antichrist figure, under the façade of peace and safety, will actually act as a totalitarian, one-world state. Thiel believes this antichrist is “focused single-mindedly on saving us from progress, at any cost.” However, his views are inherently contradictory. Thiel is actively using Palantir to build defense and surveillance infrastructure for the government, funding the very tools that facilitate the possibility of a one-world regime that his own ideology warns about. Once a government relies on a single tech stack like Palantir for its security apparatus, that stack gains massive structural power. So, by steadily deepening its role within government technology, Palantir expands what any government *could* do if they ever chose to centralize power. Furthermore, the original vision for Thiel’s PayPal was to wholly replace government-controlled currency like the US dollar, with the ultimate goal of making it the main, independent source of money for all citizens. In a Stanford center for professional development lecture in 2014, Thiel stated, > “If you’re a startup \[like PayPal\], you want to get to monopoly. You’re starting a new company, you want to get to monopoly." Because this monopoly directly contradicts the competition that drives free-market principles, it becomes increasingly clear that if the future were to be a totalitarian one world state with a central, supreme leader in charge of all sectors, Peter Thiel would be the antichrist. And yet, this contradiction is indeed very strategic because theology with talks of an antichrist and Thiel’s background as a "small-o orthodox Christian" provides a moral cover. It reframes opposing viewpoints as evil and sacrilegious. With this antichrist narrative, Thiel characterizes those who believe in policing and restricting technology as enemies of God, utilizing religious justification to suppress them. But then, this would not be the first time that religion was manipulated for justification. Recently in my English class, we have been studying Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, and that got me thinking about the parallels between Peter Thiel and Victor Frankenstein. Widely regarded as a literary classic, Mary Shelley’s *Frankenstein* provides one of the earliest and most enduring frameworks for understanding technocratic ambition and esoteric ideologies. Written in the early 19th century amid scientific experimentation rooted in Enlightenment principles, the novel reflects progress and its consequences. Victor Frankenstein’s pursuit of forbidden knowledge mirrors emerging technocratic impulses that prefer innovation over ethical restraint. As such, *Frankenstein* functions not merely as a Gothic cautionary tale, but as a foundational text for examining how power and technological aspiration intertwine to produce unintended, and often destructive, outcomes. # Peter Thiel and Frankenstein on Transhumanism Thiel: “A critique of the trans people in a sexual context, or a transvestite, is someone who changes their clothes and cross-dresses \[…\] but we want more transformation than that. The critique is not that it's weird and unnatural, it’s *so pathetically little*. We want more than cross-dressing or changing our sex organs, we want you to be able to change your heart, and change your mind, and *change your whole body*.” Where Peter Thiel wants humankind to customize their preexisting bodies, Victor Frankenstein’s creature was the very product of this customization, and we saw the negative effects that this had on the creature, the creator, and the world around them. Victor hand-picked “limbs in proportion, and \[…\] had selected \[the creature’s\] features as beautiful” (vol I, ch. IV, pg. 38). Frankenstein taught us that customization pulled us away from the characteristics that made us human, and by eradicating flaws with technological advancement, we lost the wabi-sabi that defined humanism in the first place. So, while Thiel’s bold statement of “changing your whole body” could just be futile technocrat jargon, or all bark and no bite, we saw the results of the unrestricted technology that Thiel advocates for in Frankenstein, and transhumanists like Thiel most certainly have the wealth, power, and connections to turn this fictional story into a utopian reality. # Peter Thiel and Frankenstein on Defying Nature A couple minutes later in the same interview, Douthat facilitates a discussion tying religion, nature, and technology together, asking Peter Thiel how each piece of the puzzle fits. Ross Douthat: “The promise of Christianity in the end is the perfected body and the perfected soul through god’s grace. And the person who tries to do it on their own with a bunch of machines is likely to end up as a dystopian character.” Thiel: “I think the word ‘nature’ does not occur once in the Old Testament, and the way I understand the Judeo-Christian inspiration, is \[that\] *it is about transcending nature*.” While he is correct that the word ‘nature’ does not appear in the Old Testament, allusions to the physical world and all real things go hand in hand with God’s creation, and therefore intrinsically link nature to the Old Testament. But then, let us look at transcending nature from a more universal perspective, one that is not hinged on religion where messages are entirely different based on where you are in the world and what family you are born into. In Frankenstein, nature famously retaliates when Victor pushes the boundaries, with Mary Shelley incorporating the sublime setting to suggest that the scientist is consistently outmatched by natural power. Gloomy weather and hostile landscapes mirror Victor’s loss of control, and as he approaches the creation’s completion, the world outside his laboratory is anything but bright. Instead, this ‘achievement’ takes place “on a dreary night of November” where “the rain patter\[s\] dismally against the panes” (vol I, ch. IV, pg. 37-38). This miserable setting foreshadows Victor’s lifelong misfortune, where the creation triggers his manic, depressive spiral that lasts until the end of the novel. It also signals a larger theme where any attempt to violate nature sets off consequences that no human mind can contain. The novel’s final setting in the brutal Arctic cold further underscores nature’s ultimate authority. Victor, still convinced he can overpower the natural world, instead collapses under the weight of his ego and dies in the ice. His fate teaches us that attempts to defy nature’s boundaries inevitably collapse under forces far greater than human will. It is worth noting that Shelley uses mother nature, something traditionally referred to in a feminine context due to its life-giving and nurturing qualities, to highlight male arrogance. Victor himself characterizes the Alps as female, a clear reflection of omnipotent fertility, and on his wedding day, Victor admires "the beautiful Mont Blanc, and the assemblage of snowy mountains that in vain endeavor to emulate *her*" (vol. III, ch. V, pg. 145). # Peter Thiel and Frankenstein on Gender Roles However, when it comes to Frankenstein and Peter Thiel, opinions on gender roles fly a little under the radar because neither party truly hates women at all. In fact, in a 2016 Bloomberg interview Thiel acknowledges gender disparities in tech, where “only 2 out of 150 \[Silicon Valley startups\] had woman cofounders, and if you’re 148 to 2, that’s a crazy lack of balance”. While many journalists paint Thiel as a pure misogynist, what they fail to understand is that women don’t follow his libertarian agenda, and Peter Thiel, a man who desperately works to control every single sector, takes issue with *this*. In Peter Thiel’s essay, *The Education of a Libertarian,* he states, “since 1920, the vast increase in welfare beneficiaries and the extension of the \[voting\] franchise to women — \[are\] two constituencies that are notoriously tough for libertarians.” So, this push for gender inequality stems from a lack of control. As I mentioned earlier, because Frankenstein cannot control *mother* nature, something with nurturing, feminine qualities, he instead feels the need to rape her and “penetrate into the recesses of nature and show how she works in her hiding-places” (vol. I, ch. II, pg. 31). Victor’s irrational fear of building a female creation also stems from a lack of control. According to him, this woman could become “ten thousand times more malignant than her mate” or “turn with disgust from \[the male creature\] to the superior beauty of man; \[leaving him\] deserted by one of his own species” (vol. III, ch. III, pg. 124-125). This female creature would have independent free will, along with autonomous opinions and beliefs that could not be controlled by him nor his male creature. > “Terrified of female sexuality and the power of human reproduction it enables, both he and the patriarchal society he represents use the technologies of science and the laws of the polis to manipulate, control, and repress women.” -Anne K. Mellor, Professor of English Literature and Women's Studies at UCLA And the even crazier part? Both Victor Frankenstein and Peter Thiel prefer other men as romantic and sexual partners. This preference reinforces a desire for relationships they can idealize and control, in contrast to the autonomy they both fear in women. Both Thiel and Frankenstein desire absolute authority, whether in the natural world or the social one. In this framework, women emerge as forces that resist their power, refusing to align with their overarching agenda. # Peter Thiel and Frankenstein on Technological Stagnation Thiel: “It wasn’t zero, but 1750 to 1970 — 200-plus years — were periods of accelerating change. We were relentlessly moving faster: The ships were faster, the railroads were faster, the cars were faster, the planes were faster. It culminates in the Concorde and the Apollo missions. But then, in all sorts of dimensions, things had slowed. \[…\] So, yes, I think broadly we’re in this world that’s still pretty stuck, but it’s not absolutely stuck.” Hans Jochen Scholl, Professor at University of Washington carefully dissects Thiel’s stance: > “At the core of Thiel’s narrative lies a romantic expectation that *innovation should appear as discrete, dramatic breakthroughs—visible, monumental, and physical*. Yet history and philosophy suggest otherwise.” History does, in fact, suggest otherwise. Victor Frankenstein often felt “discontented and unsatisfied” with modern philosophy of the time, and much preferred the ancient, occult philosophical texts of Agrippa and Paracelsus that focused on magical systems and other imaginative ideas relatively ahead of their time (vol. I ch. I. pg. 25). In fact, Paracelsus effectively served as the blueprint for contemporary transhumanists like Frankenstein and Thiel, and “looked beyond the limits of the human condition, even going so far as to give detailed instructions about how to create a homunculus” (Bjork, 24). To Victor, scientific innovation of the 1800s looked stationary and “promise\[d\] very little,” clearly diverging from Paracelsus’ dramatic breakthroughs with the potential for monumental impact (vol. I, ch. II, pg. 31). This stagnant characterization aligns with Thiel’s, who also believes that technological advancement is exclusive to big, inspiring events like the Concorde and Apollo missions he mentions in the interview. What I find particularly ironic is how the comparison between Peter Thiel and Victor Frankenstein fundamentally debunks each man’s argument. Where Thiel highlights peak innovation from 1750 to 1970, Frankenstein believed that innovation during this exact timeframe felt boring, stagnant, and uninspiring. With this logic, a future technocrat in another couple hundred years might find their modern technological progress particularly stagnant and look to the glory days of the 21st century. Because stagnation is a concept built on perspective, and relative to the eye of its beholder, it becomes a manufactured narrative that these men use to justify their ideologies, rather than a factual trend worth analyzing. --- # References ###### Bjork, R. E. (n.d.). Beasts, humans, and transhumans (Vol. 45). Arizona Studies in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. ###### Bloomberg. (2016, April 12). Peter Thiel on women in tech \[Video\]. Bloomberg. [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/videos/2016-04-12/peter-thiel-on-women-in-tech](https://www.bloomberg.com/news/videos/2016-04-12/peter-thiel-on-women-in-tech?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Cato Unbound. (2009, April 13). Education and libertarianism. [https://www.cato-unbound.org/2009/04/13/peter-thiel/education-libertarian/](https://www.cato-unbound.org/2009/04/13/peter-thiel/education-libertarian/?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Clay, E. (n.d.). \[Article on transhumanism\]. Northwestern University. [https://rprt.northwestern.edu/documents/clay-article-3.pdf](https://rprt.northwestern.edu/documents/clay-article-3.pdf?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Complex. (n.d.). Peter Thiel hesitates the human race may survive. [https://www.complex.com/life/a/cmplxtara-mahadevan/peter-thiel-hesitates-human-race-survive](https://www.complex.com/life/a/cmplxtara-mahadevan/peter-thiel-hesitates-human-race-survive?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Douthat, R. (2025, June 26). Peter Thiel and the Antichrist. The New York Times. [https://www.nytimes.com/2025/06/26/opinion/peter-thiel-antichrist-ross-douthat.html](https://www.nytimes.com/2025/06/26/opinion/peter-thiel-antichrist-ross-douthat.html?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Founders Fund. (2023, August). The diversity myth, 30 years later. [https://foundersfund.com/2023/08/diversity-myth-30-years-later/](https://foundersfund.com/2023/08/diversity-myth-30-years-later/?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Guardian Staff. (2025, October 10). Peter Thiel lectures on the Antichrist. The Guardian. [https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2025/oct/10/peter-thiel-lectures-antichrist](https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2025/oct/10/peter-thiel-lectures-antichrist?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Mahadevan, T. (n.d.). Peter Thiel hesitates the human race may survive. Complex. [https://www.complex.com/life/a/cmplxtara-mahadevan/peter-thiel-hesitates-human-race-survive](https://www.complex.com/life/a/cmplxtara-mahadevan/peter-thiel-hesitates-human-race-survive?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Mellor, A. K. (n.d.). Frankenstein: A feminist critique. University of Pennsylvania. [https://knarf.english.upenn.edu/Articles/mellor6.html](https://knarf.english.upenn.edu/Articles/mellor6.html?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Reich, R. B. (n.d.). Women got the right to vote 104 years ago today… \[Facebook post\]. Facebook. ###### Scholl, J. (2025, July 26). Flying cars, AI, and Peter Thiel’s myth of stagnation. University of Washington. [https://faculty.washington.edu/jscholl/2025/07/26/flying-cars-ai-and-peter-thiels-myth-of-stagnation/](https://faculty.washington.edu/jscholl/2025/07/26/flying-cars-ai-and-peter-thiels-myth-of-stagnation/?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Shelley, M. (2012). Frankenstein (3rd ed., Norton Critical Edition). W. W. Norton & Company. ###### The sublime. (n.d.). Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein. [https://maryshelleysfrankenstein.omeka.net/exhibits/show/mary-shelley-s-frankenstein/the-sublime](https://maryshelleysfrankenstein.omeka.net/exhibits/show/mary-shelley-s-frankenstein/the-sublime?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Transhumanism, Frankenstein, and extinction. (n.d.). Academia.edu. [https://www.academia.edu/43706522/TRANSHUMANISM\_FRANKENSTEIN\_AND\_EXTINCTION](https://www.academia.edu/43706522/TRANSHUMANISM%5FFRANKENSTEIN%5FAND%5FEXTINCTION?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Washington Post. (n.d.). Inside billionaire Peter Thiel’s private Antichrist lectures \[Podcast\]. [https://www.washingtonpost.com/podcasts/post-reports/inside-billionaire-peter-thiels-private-antichrist-lectures/](https://www.washingtonpost.com/podcasts/post-reports/inside-billionaire-peter-thiels-private-antichrist-lectures/?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Wired. (n.d.). The real stakes—and real story—behind Peter Thiel’s Antichrist obsession. [https://www.wired.com/story/the-real-stakes-real-story-peter-thiels-antichrist-obsession/](https://www.wired.com/story/the-real-stakes-real-story-peter-thiels-antichrist-obsession/?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Wikipedia contributors. (n.d.). Peter Thiel. Wikipedia. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter\_Thiel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%5FThiel?ref=youthstemline.com) --- ### November Monthly Recap: Thankful for STEM URL: https://youthstemline.com/november-monthly-recap-thankful-for-stem/ Last updated: 2026-06-11T03:50:00.000Z By Bela Koganti \~10 minutes --- November is about the three S’s: scarfing down Thanksgiving dinner, seeing family, and splurging on Black Friday. But we’d like to add a fourth: STEM! This November, we’ve advanced in everything from the environment to Jeff Bezos’ Blue Origin, so here’s what you need to know. # November 3: Gone Glacier Antarctica’s Hektoria glacier recently became the quickest-retreating glacier in modern history, and a CU Boulder study published November 3 revealed how and why. From late 2022 to early 2023, over half of Hektoria disintegrated– that’s eight kilometers of ice, gone in just two months. Essentially, the flat bedrock (or ice-plain) under Hektoria set it afloat as it thinned, causing the glacier to shed parts into the sea. Such a shedding process is generally called “calving”, and it’s pretty rare. Here’s why it happened in Hektoria’s case: 1. In the past, glaciers resting on ice-plains dissolved hundreds of meters each day, so Hektoria probably experienced the same process. 2. The ice-plain forced Hektoria to begin calving, and that exposure to the ocean created further cracks in the glacier. As the cracks met, they eventually calved the entire glacier. 3. To confirm the process, scientists found a set of glacier-earthquakes that occurred in unison with the retreat. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-6-w-1024-1.png) Between 2022 and 2023, broken fast ice allowed ocean water to reach the Hektoria glacier, shrinking it by half / Adrian Luckman / CNN Climate © With this new discovery of how and why Hektoria retreated, scientists can now predict and expect other glacier retreats. However, prediction does not equal prevention. These models show that continued warming, driven largely by human greenhouse gas emissions, will only accelerate this process. In order to help out, let’s follow [this guide from the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR)](https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/climate-solutions/reduce-greenhouse-gases?ref=youthstemline.com) to minimize our CO2 emissions; I mean, we might just save a glacier. # November 8: Crispr for Cholesterol Cholesterol. We know it and sometimes fear it, but what is it? Cholesterol levels are determined by LDL cholesterol, a waxy compound that can clog arteries, and triglycerides, the most prominent type of fat in the body. Triglycerides can also harden arteries and artery walls. So, when we have high cholesterol, our arteries might be blocked and we have increased risk of heart attacks, heart diseases, and strokes. Around 25% of adults in the United States have increased levels of LDL and triglycerides. Ouch. But never fear, Crispr is here! Crispr, a Swiss biotechnology company that deals with gene-editing, recently tested a new infusion and presented its results on November 8. Their one-time infusion of CTX310, a therapy delivered by liquid nanoparticles, attempted to turn off ANGPTL3, a gene in the liver. Because some people are born with a mutated ANGPTL3 gene that safely protects them from heart disease, the Crispr scientists tried to replicate that. The highest dose given reduced triglyceride and harmful LDL by about 50% in two weeks, and the results lasted through the end of the trial. With this initial success, Crispr plans to begin Phase II studies in 2026, and they hope to achieve an infusion that lasts a lifetime. Once safety of treatments is further explored and confirmed, CTX310 may even become a preventative measure. As senior author and chief academic officer of the Heart, Vascular, and Thoracic Institute at Cleveland Clinic Steven Nissen said, > “This is a revolution in progress.” -Steven Nissen # November 10: One of a Kind The universe cannot be replicated. We follow no simulation, no set mathematics, and no algorithm. Who knew? Well, physicists, apparently. At the University of British Columbia in Okanagan, physicists proved that the universe cannot be simulated. There’s a mathematical layer of quantum gravity dubbed the “Platonic realm” that creates even the concepts of space and time. However, these physicists proved that it cannot recreate reality purely with computation. Known as “Gödelian truths,” some things just cannot be understood with logic as they contradict themselves. Think about this for a minute: how would you prove the idea that "this true statement is not provable”? You can’t, and neither can a computer. Statements like this one exist all throughout our universe; when faced with them, computers’ logical algorithms fail. Thus, computers cannot know and compute everything about our universe, so they cannot replicate it. We are one of a kind. # November 13: Bezos in Space On November 13, Jeff Bezos launched Blue Origin’s New Glenn rocket out of Florida. New Glenn deployed two of NASA’s Escapade Satellites to measure Mars’ atmosphere and magnetic field, and, for the first time, its reusable booster successfully made it onto a landing pad in the Atlantic Ocean. Blue Origin is now the second company in the world to do so, with Elon Musk in first. Watch the landing [here](https://www.bbc.com/news/videos/c5yd0zd6eddo?ref=youthstemline.com). Okay, check back in 22 months—hm, that’s September of 2027—when the satellites arrive at Mars! ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-7-w-1024.png) New Glenn Launches NASA’s ESCAPADE, Lands Fully Reusable Booster / Blue Origin © # November 14: Crispr for Cancer And for the second time in one article, Crispr’s here! This time, however, it tackles chemotherapy resistance in lung cancer. A gene called NRF2 can cause resistance to chemotherapy in some cases of cancer, so Crispr scientists looked at disabling it in lung squamous cell carcinoma, an aggressive type of lung cancer that makes up around a quarter of all lung cancer cases. They infused R34G, a mutation in NRF2 that can regulate cellular stress reactions; when NRF2’s is overactive, it causes cancer cells to resist chemotherapy, so they used R34G to subdue NRF2’s behavior. Even when they only calmed NRF2 in less than half of tumor cells, it still reduced tumors and improved chemotherapy response. "The power of this CRISPR therapy lies in its precision. It's like an arrow that hits only the bullseye,” Kelly Banas, lead author of the study, said. As Crispr will continue to perform and study trials, R34G might just be the future of cancer treatment. # November 18: Gemini 3’s Release We’ve all seen the AI overviews embedded into Google’s search results. You’re just wondering how long to bake your snickerdoodles for, but the AI’s answer ranges from 8 minutes to 25\. What? Then, you look and see twelve recipes referenced. Huh? *There’s no way it’s that difficult,* you wonder. Yeah, we’ve all been there. However, Google just launched Gemini 3, and they proclaim it their “most intelligent model” yet. Maybe we’ll get a more precise answer on those snickerdoodles now! More confident than ever in Gemini 3, Google embedded it into its search engine on the first day of its release, which they had never done before. Normally, they gradually implant new versions over weeks, or even months. Gemini 3 also brings new features to the table. Or, well, to the phone. “Gemini Agent” can book travel plans, organize your overwhelmed email, and do other multi-step jobs. Additionally, they updated the Gemini app to respond to prompts with answers so thorough they look like websites. Well, if you’re looking for a new AI model, Gemini 3 may very well be what you need. And if you’re looking for ridiculously incorrect and vague answers to make fun of, the jury’s still out on whether Gemini 3 is the platform for you or not. # November 18: A Milky Way Model We already discussed computers’ inability to model our universe, but I never said anything about the Milky Way! Researchers from the RIKEN Center for Interdisciplinary Theoretical and Mathematical Sciences (iTHEMS) in Japan, The University of Tokyo, and the Universitat de Barcelona in Spain managed to accurately simulate 100 billion stars over the course of 10 thousand years. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-9-w-1024.png) Researchers Create First 100-billion-star Milky Way Simulation Using AI / *NRAO* / Orbital Today © These researchers trained an AI model using high-resolution simulations, and it eventually managed to predict resulting gas expansions. Thus, it created a simulation of the galaxy’s overall dynamics as well as its smaller phenomena. Previous models of the universe would struggle to predict on a small-scale, but this new one can do exactly that. Also, it did so quickly! In just under 3 hours, it created a simulation of the galaxy over 1 million years. This new model could become popular for making other simulations that need small- and large-scale accuracy. Like lead researcher Keiya Hirashima said, > “This achievement also shows that AI-accelerated simulations can move beyond pattern recognition to become a genuine tool for scientific discovery—helping us trace how the elements that formed life itself emerged within our galaxy.” -Keiya Hirashima # November 18: Antimatter Aplenty Have you noticed that this is the third event from November 18? Sounds like a hat trick to me! Anyways, CERN’s Antimatter factory recently undertook a new project called the ALPHA experiment, and they published their findings on November 18\. Essentially, they managed to create over 15,000 antihydrogen atoms in under 7 hours. Antihydrogen is the most basic form of atomic antimatter, and antimatter is a substance with the same mass and particles as another substance but opposite charges. For example, antihydrogen has the same mass and particles as hydrogen, but hydrogen’s protons have positive charges and its electrons have negative charges while antihydrogen’s protons have negative charges and its electrons have positive charges. When antimatter and matter meet, they destroy each other, creating an immense amount of energy. Antimatter is normally found in particle accelerators, cosmic rays, and medical imaging, but it’s fairly rare as creating it is a lengthy process. However, with the ALPHA team’s new method, they’ve managed to make antimatter 8 times faster than normal. Normally, the process involves creating and trapping antiprotons and positrons separately before cooling and merging them together to form antihydrogen, but ALPHA’s unique success came from the way they create their positrons. The general problem with creating antimatter is that trapped positrons refuse to stay still once trapped, and they don’t cool down enough. So, the ALPHA team approached the antihydrogen by adding laser-cooled beryllium ions to the positron trap. The beryllium makes the positrons lose energy through sympathetic cooling, which cools the positrons to around -266 °C and makes them more likely to merge with the antiprotons and form antihydrogen, creating more antimatter. Scientists thoroughly study any antimatter they can get, so, with this new abundance, they plan to study gravity’s effect on antimatter in the ALPHA-g experiment. Stay tuned because they may discover new properties and behavior of antimatter, which wouldn’t be possible without ALPHA’s new process. Okay, that’s all I have for November. Consider this my holiday gift to you. Enjoy December, and come back for Stemline’s next recap! --- # References ###### Cai, K. (2025, November 18). Google launches Gemini 3, embeds AI model into search immediately. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/business/media-telecom/google-launches-gemini-3-embeds-ai-model-into-search-immediately-2025-11-18/ ###### ChristianaCare Gene Editing Institute. (2025, November 17). CRISPR breakthrough reverses chemotherapy resistance in lung cancer. Eurek Alert! https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1106182 ###### CRISPR Therapeutics AG. (2025, November 8). CRISPR Therapeutics announces positive phase 1 clinical data for CTX310® demonstrating deep and durable ANGPTL3 editing, triglyceride and lipid lowering. CRISPR Therapeutics. https://crisprtx.com/about-us/press-releases-and-presentations/crispr-therapeutics-announces-positive-phase-1-clinical-data-for-ctx310-demonstrating-deep-and-durable-angptl3-editing-triglyceride-and-lipid-lowering ###### Harris, R. (2025, November 18). Breakthrough in antimatter production. CERN. https://home.cern/news/news/experiments/breakthrough-antimatter-production ###### Lohnes, K. (2025, June 13). What is antimatter?. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/story/what-is-antimatter ###### Mullin, E. (2025, November 8). A gene-editing therapy cut cholesterol levels by half. Wired. https://www.wired.com/story/a-gene-editing-therapy-cut-cholesterol-levels-by-half/ ###### Riken. (2025, November 18). The simulated Milky Way: 100 billion stars using 7 million CPU cores. Riken. https://www.riken.jp/en/news\_pubs/research\_news/pr/2025/20251117\_2/index.html ###### UCAR. (2020). How do we reduce greenhouse gases? UCAR: Center for Science Education. https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/climate-solutions/reduce-greenhouse-gases ###### University of British Columbia Okanagan campus. (2025, November 10). Physicists prove the Universe isn't a simulation after all. ScienceDaily. Retrieved December 13, 2025 from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2025/11/251110021052.htm ###### University of Colorado at Boulder. (2025, November 3). Antarctic glacier retreated faster than any other in modern history. Eurek Alert. https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1104274 ###### Watch: Blue Origin rocket successfully lands booster for first time \[Video\]. (2025, November 13). BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/videos/c5yd0zd6eddo --- ### The Green Price of Intelligence URL: https://youthstemline.com/the-green-price-of-intelligence/ Last updated: 2026-06-12T22:59:01.000Z By Summer Chen \~ 6 minutes --- Over the past three years, a rush of excitement has emerged globally regarding artificial intelligence. In a student’s everyday life, discussions about artificial intelligence arise frequently- whether about the potential benefits of generative AI, using ChatGPT on homework assignments, or seeing AI’s growing presence on social media platforms like TikTok. Claims that AI holds significant potential in the development of society and technology are impossible to ignore, with AI occupying numerous sectors seen throughout daily life. In fact, when I began writing this article, even clicking *enter* on a google search titled “Impact of AI on climate change” immediately caused an AI overview to pop up unprompted. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-3-w-1024-1.png) AI generated images / The Economic Times India © While the environmental repercussions of AI usage cannot be ignored, to deny the multitude of potential benefits from artificial intelligence would be absurd. Instead, it makes more sense that the use of (mostly generative) AI for recreational purposes is the issue– hundreds of thousands of people contribute to this environmental impact, not realizing that even a short prompt into ChatGPT has been proven by the **International Energy Agency** to equate to 4-10x the amount of energy that just one Google search consumes. There are four key problems attributed to why AI can cause widespread harm to our environment. First, the mining required to extract critical minerals and rare earth elements for the microchips that power AI is incredibly destructive to the environments where these resources are found. **Navigating New Horizons**confirms this, stating, > “\[The minerals and elements\] are often mined unsustainably”. The second is that AI servers are held in data centers which produce a shocking amount of electronic waste. They also contain hazardous substances such as mercury and lead, according to **the United Nations Environment Program** (**UNEP)**. This is harmful because when they are (often) disposed of improperly, the wildlife, soil, air, and water around it are contaminated. Thirdly, these AI data centers use preposterous amounts of electricity and energy, due to advanced technology seen in these models. Therefore, the energy used in most of these data centers comes from fossil fuels which produce greenhouse gases that further contribute to global warming. Research by the **University of Nottingham** shows that by 2026, AI data centers will likely account for nearly 35% of Ireland’s energy consumption. Added effects to climate change are something that we simply can’t afford currently, with the already increasing rate of rising global temperatures. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-4-w-1024.png) Pollution due to Elon Musk’s AI data center in Memphis / NAACP © Finally, and most of all, data centers consume a colossal amount of water, not only to construct but also to cool electrical components of AI. Chilled water absorbs heat from computing equipment. This water does not return to the water cycle; most of it is gone forever when used to cool these heated data centers. The centers use mechanical chillers which carry heat away from the servers, releasing it through a condenser, and so the water becomes water vapor where it does not cycle back through treatment systems like in a typical household. Even though some of it returns as rainfall, a majority of vapor in the air cannot be recovered. Not only this, but data centres are often located near locations which are already prone to droughts, which gives the inhabitants of this area even less access to water. This is a huge problem when a *quarter* of humanity already lacks access to clean water and sanitation. **MIT News**tells us that for every single kilowatt hour of energy a data center consumes, it would need two entire liters of water for cooling. It is an atrocity to restrict so much life from access to clean water and instead use it on generating ‘a cartoon version of me’ or asking ChatGPT to write a quick email that could be written by the individual in just two minutes instead. The impacts of these contributors on climate change are immense. It also doesn’t help that generative AI models have an extremely short shelf-life as AI companies such as ChatGPT and DeepSeek consistently deliver new models, provoked by rising demand for new AI applications. So, the energy used to train previous models goes to waste every few weeks, and new models use even more energy because they are more advanced than the previous ones. Sure, one person using Perplexity AI doesn't do much to the environment, but if everyone follows this logic, the large scale of people using AI results in terrible repercussions. On the other hand, popular articles repeat that because “500ml of water are used for every 20-50 ChatGPT prompts, not every prompt”, the amount of energy that ChatGPT uses is not that significant. However, like govtech.com states, even if 500ml sounds small, combined with the 122 million people who use ChatGPT daily, this is a lot of water that is wasted for purposeless reasons. AI's energy use has exploded only because AI has exploded. It is not that each prompt uses a significant amount of energy, but that AI has had an explosive growth being the quickest adopted technology ever, therefore the energy adds up to be significant through the sum of people using AI. As a society, we have to acknowledge that even though AI provides us an abundance of opportunities and ideas for our modern world, we must not forget the consequences to the already declining environment that overuse brings. We should take into consideration that life would most likely not be worse without generative AI for the average person. We should take into consideration that the tradeoff of mindless entertainment and having ChatGPT search for basic facts is worth a better chance at restoring our Earth. And ultimately, we should simply refrain from using AI for recreational reasons unless the purpose is absolutely urgent and necessary. --- # References ###### After Ghibli art trend, Barbie Box Challenge breaks the internet: How to create your ai doll avatar?. The Economic Times. (n.d.). [https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/after-ghibli-art-trend-barbie-box-challenge-breaks-the-internet-how-to-create-your-ai-doll-avatar/articleshow/120257077.cms?from=mdr](https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/after-ghibli-art-trend-barbie-box-challenge-breaks-the-internet-how-to-create-your-ai-doll-avatar/articleshow/120257077.cms?from=mdr&ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Elon Musk’s Xai threatened with lawsuit over air pollution from Memphis Data Center, filed on behalf of NAACP. NAACP. (2025, June 17). [https://naacp.org/articles/elon-musks-xai-threatened-lawsuit-over-air-pollution-memphis-data-center-filed-behalf](https://naacp.org/articles/elon-musks-xai-threatened-lawsuit-over-air-pollution-memphis-data-center-filed-behalf?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### GovTech. (n.d.). About Us. GovTech. [https://www.govtech.com/about ](https://www.govtech.com/about ?ref=youthstemline.com) --- ### The Science Behind Flow State URL: https://youthstemline.com/the-science-behind-flow-state/ Last updated: 2026-06-11T02:55:06.000Z By: Maggie Wright \~ 3 minutes --- Recently, the phrase ‘flow state’ has gone viral on social media, but most people have no clue what’s actually happening in the brain. Creative outlets for your brain start with the flow state, a mental state you can enter during creative activities like art, dance, writing poetry, or even giving a creative speech. When you are fully immersed in what you're doing, the mind becomes deeply focused and present. This experience is known as the flow state. Being in this state can trigger the release of feel-good chemicals such as dopamine, which is associated with pleasure and reward. These chemicals positively affect your brain chemistry and help bring it into balance. The more often you engage in creative activities that lead you into this flow state, the more positive the effects on your mental and emotional health. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-w-800.png) Make the Most of Your Happy Chemicals – Wellbeing Infographic / Trainer Bubble © Routine also plays an important role in achieving flow state. While the brain may become bored with repetition, the discipline of regularly doing creative work helps maintain the steady release of beneficial brain chemicals. Over time, this habit becomes a powerful tool for supporting emotional stability and improving overall brain function. It can also increase your capacity to learn and help you stay in a more positive mood. Your brain is like a muscle that can grow and change with use. Just as going to the gym strengthens your body, creative outlets help strengthen your brain. Whether you're solving mental math problems, dancing, writing, or painting, these activities exercise the brain in meaningful ways, and with time, you will begin to notice progress in your thinking, mood, and emotional resilience. Creative outlets are not just helpful in the long-term, they also provide temporary support. These outlets allow you to process emotions, deal with stress or trauma, and reflect on your day in a positive way. This results in a clear headspace and a more productive day. Engaging in creative activities can calm the amygdala, which is the part of the brain responsible for the fight-or-flight response. When you're feeling anxious or stressed, the amygdala becomes highly active. Creative work signals to the brain that you're safe, which helps reduce that activation and gives you a sense of relief and clarity. Incorporating creativity into your life is more than just enjoyable, it’s a powerful way to support your mental health and help your brain thrive. --- # References ###### Freepik. (n.d.). Psychology concept – Sunrise and dreamer woman silhouette \[Digital image\]. Freepik. [https://www.freepik.com/premium-photo/psychology-concept-sunrise-dreamer-woman-silhouette\_18124911.htm](https://www.freepik.com/premium-photo/psychology-concept-sunrise-dreamer-woman-silhouette%5F18124911.htm?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Jean-Berluche, D. (2024). Creative expression and mental health. Journal of Creativity, 34(2), 100083\. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yjoc.2024.100083](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yjoc.2024.100083?ref=youthstemline.com) [ScienceDirect](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2713374524000098?utm%5Fsource=chatgpt.com) ###### Kumar, V. et al. (2024). Creative pursuits for mental health and well-being. [PMC](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10911317/?utm%5Fsource=chatgpt.com) ###### Suttie, J. (2018, July 11). Where does happiness reside in the brain? Greater Good Science Center. [https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/where\_does\_happiness\_reside\_in\_the\_brain](https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/where%5Fdoes%5Fhappiness%5Freside%5Fin%5Fthe%5Fbrain?utm%5Fsource=chatgpt.com) ###### The Role of Handmade Crafts in Mental Health and Self-Care. (2023, January 25). Awesome Pattern Studio. [https://awesomepatternstudio.com/blog/blog/the-role-of-handmade-crafts-in-mental-health-and-self-care/](https://awesomepatternstudio.com/blog/blog/the-role-of-handmade-crafts-in-mental-health-and-self-care/?ref=youthstemline.com) [Awesome Pattern Studio](https://awesomepatternstudio.com/blog/blog/the-role-of-handmade-crafts-in-mental-health-and-self-care/?srsltid=AfmBOoqyxxIZdb6F2vjEl6-Y6XJX9SrgLA8GRx2vGq-Fvi2z4uj7-3CT&utm%5Fsource=chatgpt.com) ###### Trainer Bubble. (n.d.). Make the most of your happy chemicals – Wellbeing infographic \[Infographic\]. Trainer Bubble. [https://www.trainerbubble.com/make-the-most-of-your-happy-chemicals-wellbeing-infographic/](https://www.trainerbubble.com/make-the-most-of-your-happy-chemicals-wellbeing-infographic/?utm%5Fsource=chatgpt.com) ###### UCLA Health. (2025, May 15). 3 proven health benefits of having a hobby. [https://www.uclahealth.org/news/article/3-proven-health-benefits-having-hobby](https://www.uclahealth.org/news/article/3-proven-health-benefits-having-hobby?utm%5Fsource=chatgpt.com) [UCLA Health](https://www.uclahealth.org/news/article/3-proven-health-benefits-having-hobby?utm%5Fsource=chatgpt.com) --- ### October Monthly Recap: How’s It Falling? URL: https://youthstemline.com/october-recap-hows-it-falling/ Last updated: 2026-06-11T02:55:07.000Z By Bela Koganti \~ 14 minutes --- This October, STEM has reached new heights in astronomy, medicine, and awards. So, here’s an outline of what you need to know to stay informed. # October 1: Enceladus ![](https://assets.science.nasa.gov/dynamicimage/assets/science/psd/solar/2023/07/PIA11133.jpg?w=1972&h=2848&fit=clip&crop=faces%2Cfocalpoint) Enceladus / NASA Science © Saturn already has the highest number of known moons in our solar system, with 250, but it could also become the only planet with a habitable moon. Greedy, right? The 2005-2017 Cassini-Huygens mission to Saturn revealed clefts in the surface of Enceladus (one of Saturn’s moons) that shoot out water vapor ‘plumes’ into space as a ring (dubbed the E-ring) that circles Saturn. These clefts are believed to receive their water from an ocean below Enceladus’ surface. When the Cassini spacecraft flew through the plumes as they sprayed, it collected ice grains. Since the mission, scientists have been researching these grains, and they’ve found that Enceladus’ plumes hold carbon-containing molecules like aliphatic, heterocyclic esters, alkalines, ethers, ethyl, possibly nitrogenic, and possibly oxygenic compounds. They published their most up-to-date findings this October 1. To break all this down, these carbon-containing molecules basically mean that the moon Enceladus might have the potential to house life. But don’t get too excited— it’s also possible that these molecules only become organic due to radiation, where ions in Saturn’s magnetosphere chemically react with the E-ring particles. To find out the truth, the European Space Agency might send an orbiter to Enceladus to sample fresh ice. Their orbiter wouldn’t arrive till 2054, so I suppose we’ll just cross our fingers till then. # October 3: From Type A to Type O We all know and love universal blood type O, but what about those who actually have it? For kidney transplants, type-A positive, -B positive, and -AB positive patients can receive their own respective type and type-O; however, type-O patients can only receive type-O kidneys. Thus, when these other patients receive type-O kidneys, people with type-O lack donors, end up waiting two to four years longer for their kidneys, and often die during the wait. Oh, and let’s not forget that type-O patients comprise over half of the kidney waiting lists! Scientists from the University of British Columbia have been tirelessly studying this catastrophe for over a decade, and they published their first successful transplant this October 3\. They managed to place two reactive enzymes in a type-A kidney so that the kidney changed to universal type-O. Sugars that coat organs’ blood vessels determine blood type, so they created an enzyme reaction to strip away the defining sugars. While past conversions have needed live donors and changed antibodies within patients, compromising their immune systems, this new method changes the kidney itself and uses deceased donors. https://www.science.org.au/curious/sites/default/files/images/people-and-medicine/blood/resizedbloodcell.png Blood Types / Australian Academy of Science © So, here’s what happened in their transplant test: 1. Scientists converted a type-A kidney using the enzymes 2. Placed the kidney in a deceased recipient (with the family’s permission) 3. Days 1-2: the body showed no signs of rejecting the kidney 4. Day 3: a few of the type-A attributes reappeared, which is a slight reaction, but nothing as severe as in previous conversions 5. The body showed signs of tolerating the kidney anyway 6. Success! # October 6: 2025 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine This year, the 2025 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine has been awarded to three people! Mary E. Brunkow, Fred Ramsdell, and Shimon Sakaguchi earned it for their advancements on ‘peripheral immune tolerance’, the mechanism that ensures the immune system doesn’t hurt the body. Essentially, peripheral immune tolerance prevents humans from having all kinds of autoimmune diseases. However, prior to these three, scientists had no real understanding of why or how this system worked. Brunkow, Ramsdell, and Sakaguchi built on each other’s findings to discover ‘regulatory T cells’, the agents behind peripheral immune tolerance. https://cdn-ckfjm.nitrocdn.com/towyAoJaLSzAqWLbduPFHfHYUnjGziVx/assets/images/optimized/rev-6ae8df4/www.lindau-nobel.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Nobel-Prize\_Medicine-Physiology\_2025.png Nobel Prize in Medicine / Lindau Nobel Laureates © Here’s how they did it: 1. 1995: Sakaguchi debunked the popular theory of ‘central tolerance’ by discovering a new group of immune cells. 2. 2001: Brunkow and Ramsdell explained why a certain type of mice was particularly defenseless against autoimmune diseases. They found that strain to have a mutation in what they dubbed their ‘Foxp3’ gene, and they showed that humans have a similar gene, which also causes an autoimmune disease when mutated. 3. 2003: Sakaguchi showed that the Foxp3 gene dictates the growth of the cells he previously found. These cells became known as ‘regulatory T cells’, and they supervise cells in the immune system as well as the immune system’s tolerance of the human body. All this is awesome, but let’s see how their discovery actually impacted modern medicine. Scientists have found that regulatory T cells can actually protect tumours from the immune system, so, in this case, they are looking for a way to dismantle the cells. However, to combat autoimmune diseases, scientists can implant more regulatory T cells into the body to help prevent the immune system from attacking the body. So, just as Ann Fernholm proclaimed, “they have thus conferred the greatest benefit to humankind.” # October 7: 2025 Nobel Prize in Physics Get this: another trio received the 2025 Nobel Prize in Physics! The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences bestowed the honor onto John Clarke, Michel H. Devoret, and John M. Martinis for their experiments demonstrating quantum physics within a larger system. Quantum physics, or quantum mechanics, allows tunneling, which is when particles pass through barriers. Normally, the effects of quantum mechanics become negligible once they start working with large particles, but Clarke, Devoret, and Martinis showed that tunneling can still happen in a larger system. https://cdn-ckfjm.nitrocdn.com/towyAoJaLSzAqWLbduPFHfHYUnjGziVx/assets/images/optimized/rev-6ae8df4/www.lindau-nobel.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/10/Nobel-Prize\_Physics\_2025.png Nobel Prize in Physics / Lindau Nobel Laureates © Just like with our last trio, here’s how they did it: 1. 1984-1985: They experimented with passing a current of charged particles through a controlled circuit containing superconductors. They found that the multiple particles acted like one large particle when going through the superconductor. The quantum part of this was that the system used tunneling to go from zero-voltage to a voltage. So, they concluded that quantum mechanics can still cause tunneling in a macroscopic system. And why do we care? Well, Olle Eriksson, the Chair of the Nobel Committee for Physics, said, “It is wonderful to be able to celebrate the way that century-old quantum mechanics continually offers new surprises. It is also enormously useful, as quantum mechanics is the foundation of all digital technology.” I don’t know about you, but I think I’ll take his word for it. # October 8: 2025 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Our LAST Nobel Prize trio of October comes in Chemistry! Susumu Kitagawa, Richard Robson, and Omar M. Yaghi received the 2025 Nobel Prize in Chemistry from the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for their ‘metal-organic frameworks (MOFs)’. These frameworks are from their new molecular construction, where carbon-based molecules link together metal ions so that the two form MOFs, which are essentially porous crystals. Scientists can then manipulate these MOFs to take in and guard particular substances. MOFs can also create chemical reactions and direct electricity. So, with these MOFs, scientists can design materials with particular functions of their choosing. https://cdn-ckfjm.nitrocdn.com/towyAoJaLSzAqWLbduPFHfHYUnjGziVx/assets/images/optimized/rev-6ae8df4/www.lindau-nobel.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/10/Nobel-Prize\_Chemistry\_2025-1.png Nobel Prize in Chemistry / Lindau Nobel Laureates © You know the drill– here’s how they did it: 1. 1989: Robson began testing the properties of atoms by combining copper molecules with four-pronged molecules, and this created porous crystals similar to MOFs. However, these MOF impersonators were unstable and needed someone to fix them. 2. 1992-2003: Enter- Kitagawa and Yaghi. From his experiments, Kitagawa concluded that MOFs could be changed and modified as gases could run through them. Then, Yaghi made a stable MOF and showed that they could be manipulated to have new properties. Since their discoveries, scientists have made tons of their own unique MOFs, each equipped to solve a different problem. We can thank MOFs for giving us a safer Earth. I mean, any kind of chemical substance that can make clean water, grab carbon dioxide from the air, or produce water from desert air sounds like a good one to me. # October 11: The Surprising Link Between COVID-19 and Anxiety Covid. The word that teleports Gen-Z right back to online school in pajamas, Roblox, and Charli D’Amelio. We all know and hate it, but did we realize that it might be affecting future generations who weren’t even alive in 2020? A study published on October 11 revealed that male mice who contracted COVID-19 birthed children with more anxiety-like behaviors than those of uninfected mice’s children. Basically, COVID-19 changes RNA molecules in the male’s sperm, which then dictates his children’s brain development. In female offspring specifically, their brain’s hippocampus region, which deals with behaviors including anxiety and depression, was altered. The authors of the study believe that these changes may cause increased anxiety levels. Okay, okay. Remember: this study was done on mice, not humans. More research is needed to see if humans will experience similar effects, but for now, we’re safe. # October 12: Light Years Away “A long time ago in a galaxy far, far away…” Wait, what? A long time ago? Evidence suggesting that the closest alien civilization may be 33,000 light-years away did come out this October 12, but for the estimate to be feasible, the civilization would need to have already existed for at least 280,000 years. Yeah, that feels like a long time ago. And don’t worry about the far, far away part– I’d call 33,000 light-years pretty far. At a recent meeting in Helsinki, research was shown indicating such a possibility. Here’s the criteria for a planet to have extraterrestrial life and actually sustain itself: 1. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (so photosynthesis can work and support life) 2. An atmosphere of at least 18% oxygen (complex animals need more oxygen, and there must be enough oxygen for fire because blacksmithing must happen to technologically advance) 3. Average lifetime of about 10 million years (so they can exist at the same time as us) 4. Already existed for at least 280,000 years (so civilization can develop and they can exist at the same time as us) Keeping these in mind, scientists have concluded that if there is an alien civilization existing at the same time as us in the same galaxy, it would have to be at least 33,000 light-years away. To put that into perspective, our Sun is about 27,000 light-years away from us. Yeah. Pretty far. # October 20: Enteral Ventilation Sometimes, CPR isn’t enough to save respiratory failure. Then, patients turn to mechanical ventilation. But sometimes mechanical ventilation is too much, and the lungs end up even further damaged. Enteral ventilation, however, may just be the sweet spot. Enteral ventilation is a practice where perfluorodecalin, an exceptionally oxygen-soluble liquid, is administered through the intestine to deliver oxygen to the body while the lungs heal. Published on October 20, the first in-human study of enteral ventilation succeeded and was demonstrated to be safe. The only side effects were bloating and stomach pain, but those quickly resolved, and perfluorodecalin concentrations nearly disappeared from the bloodstream (a good thing!). After this safe and tolerated success, more studies on enteral ventilation will soon develop, and lungs everywhere may be saved. # October 20: CI Chondrite on the Moon Before we get into any of this moon stuff, you may be wondering what in the world (or should I say galaxy) CI Chondrite is. I’m here to help! CI Chondrite, a porous and the most water-dense meteorite, generally breaks before it can reach Earth because its properties make it so crumbly. CI Chondrite actually makes up less than one percent of all meteorites on Earth. That means it also barely ever reaches the moon. However, during their Chang’e-6 mission published on October 21, the China National Space Administration found traces of CI Chondrite dust on the moon. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/NWA869Meteorite.jpg/500px-NWA869Meteorite.jpg A Chondrite Meteorite Here’s how they did it: 1. They looked at thousands of fragments from the Apollo Basin, a sub-basin in the South Pole-Aikten Basin that acts as a hotspot for debris since it covers one-fourth of the moon. 2. They looked for pieces with olivine, a mineral normally in meteorites. 3. Then, they analyzed the olivine pieces and found seven with properties identical to CI Chondrite 4. When analyzing, they found that the pieces did not have the chemical ratios expected for lunar debris. 5. However, they realized that the seven fragments’ ratios did align with those of a CI Chondrite asteroid that crashed, melted, and solidified on the moon early in the solar system’s history. With these discoveries, the team found the first solid evidence that CI Chondrite once hit the moon and that CI Chondrite can be preserved after such a crash. Actually, they found that CI Chondrite could comprise up to 30 percent of the Moon’s meteorite debris. Additionally, their study provided evidence to help back up the theory that CI Chondrite once created water and volatiles on the Earth and Moon. More research is needed to see if it’s really true, but those missions will now be much easier with the China National Space Administration’s new process to find CI Chondrite. # October 27: Back to the Basics Nope, not like the song. On October 27, in the Astrophysical Journal Letters, scientists described their findings of what they believed to be Population III stars, one of the first groups of stars in the galaxy. With the James Webb Space Telescope, they pinpointed them in LAP1-B, a cluster of stars 12 billion light-years away from Earth. Scientists believe Population III stars are some of the first stars made after the Big Bang, and they have a unique property of being a billion times brighter than and a million times the mass of our Sun. Here’s why they believe their discovered stars to be Population III: 1. Emission lines on the stars’ spectra indicated high-energy photons, which are consistent with Population III stars. 2. Their spectra showed them to be extremely large. 3. Their masses aligned with astronomers’ guesses for those of Population III stars. 4. They were in LAP1-B, whose properties agree with the criteria for Population III. 1. It’s a low hydrogen and helium environment. 2. Its temperature can support star formation. 3. It’s a low-mass cluster, and it had few large stars before those of Population III. 4. It meets mathematical criteria for forming stars and keeping them alive. Seems pretty feasible, right? Anyways, these scientists were the first to find a group of stars that meets all criteria for being Population III, and these ancient stars can actually explain the galaxy’s construction and development. That’s all for STEM this October, but don’t worry, because this November’s looking like a great one. # References ###### Cooper, K. (2025, October 2). Saturn's moon Enceladus is shooting out organic molecules that could help create life. Space.com. https://www.space.com/astronomy/saturn/saturns-moon-enceladus-is-shooting-out-organic-molecules-that-could-help-create-life ###### Europlanet. (2025, October 12). Closest alien civilization could be 33,000 light years away. Science Daily. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2025/10/251011105533.htm ###### Fernholm, A. (2025, October 6). Popular science background: They understood how the immune system is kept in check. Nobel Prize. https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2025/10/popular-medicineprize2025-2.pdf ###### The Florey. (2025, October 11). COVID-19 causes changes in sperm that lead to increased anxiety in offspring. The Florey. https://florey.edu.au/news/2025/10/covid-19-causes-changes-in-sperm-that-lead-to-increased-anxiety-in-offspring/ ###### Howell, E. (2017, September 15). Cassini-Huygens: Exploring Saturn's system. Space.com. https://www.space.com/17754-cassini-huygens.html ###### Howell, E. (2025, October 27). James Webb telescope may have found the first stars in the universe, new study claims. Live Science. https://www.livescience.com/space/cosmology/james-webb-telescope-may-have-found-the-universes-first-generation-of-stars ###### Kungl. Vetenskaps-Akademien. (2025, October 7). Press release (Nobel Prize in Physics 2025). Nobel Prize. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2025/press-release/ ###### Kungl. Vetenskaps-Akademien. (2025, October 8). Press release (Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2025). Nobel Prize. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/2025/press-release/ ###### Med. (2025, October 20). Safety and tolerability of intrarectal perfluorodecalin for enteral ventilation in a first-in-human trial. Cell. https://www.cell.com/med/abstract/S2666-6340(25)00314-9 ###### Nobelförsamlingen. (2025, October 6). Press release (Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2025). Nobel Prize. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2025/press-release/ ###### Starr, M. (2025, October 21). China brought something unexpected back from the far side of the Moon. Science Alert. https://www.sciencealert.com/china-brought-something-unexpected-back-from-the-far-side-of-the-moon ###### University of British Columbia. (2025, October 3). UBC enzyme technology clears first human test toward universal donor organs for transplantation. Eurek Alert. https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1100223 --- ### ‘The Second Brain’ The Gut Microbiome’s Effect on Your Mental Health URL: https://youthstemline.com/the-second-brain-the-gut-microbiomes-effect-on-your-mental-health/ Last updated: 2026-06-13T00:01:53.000Z By Gianna Lee \~ 4 minutes --- Every year, in the United States, millions are diagnosed with schizophrenia, autism, and depression . These disabilities severely hinder people’s way of living, therefore, it is crucial for us to find ways to prevent individuals from suffering. In the past few years, research has shown that the gut has a significant connection with your brain. # The ENS The ENS (enteric nervous system) is what some researchers call your “second brain.” It is composed of two layers that have hundreds of millions of nerve cells that dictate your mood shifts. Located in the gut, this system efficiently communicates with the central nervous system, connecting your mind and body. The ENS sends signals to your brain via the gut-brain axis. For example, when the gut signals hunger, the brain sends out a stressor leading to your blood sugar dropping, which makes you frustrated or irritated. This shows that the brain and gut are in constant communication, which can be linked to mental illness. With this logic, we can understand that while microorganisms within the gut can prevent mental illness, others can cause them. In cases of Schizophrenia, clinical research has shown similarities within the gut between patients; 8 cases of Schizophrenia found that their gut contained similar gut microbiota such as: Lactobacillus, Enterococcus, and Bifidobacterium. Scientists then prescribed probiotics to these patients which reduced inflammation and contributed to a better state and overall mood. # The Mind and Gut's Relationship While research is still being developed regarding the link between the two, findings are piling up in order to help us understand the relationship between the gut and mind. In order to maintain a healthy gut and mindset, there are a few ways to keep yourself healthy. You are what you eat. Your diet is a major factor for a healthy gut, so nourishing your gut with a diverse and balanced diet can feed bacteria, allowing for an improved mood! Some healthy nutrition options include probiotics such as: kimchi, kefir, and other fermented items, as well as prebiotics like green vegetables, legumes, whole grains, and nuts. Additionally, ways to completely treat mental illness are still being discovered. A process called “Faecal microbiota transplant” has recently been found to be a possible cure. The process allows donors with healthy guts to donate stool to patients suffering from infected colons. This process is usually used to treat infection, however, studies were done that found out a few cases of clinical depression were cured through this process. To sum it up, the gut microbiome may not seem like much, however it does play a significant role in mental health. The link between the two is still being studied to this day, with new findings revealing that treatments may cure existing mental illness. As of now, the current best way to maintain a healthy mental state is to ensure a healthy diet. Hopefully, one day we will be able to cure mental illness through these ground breaking discoveries, and when that happens, I will be here to report it! --- # References ###### GBD 2019 Mental Disorders Collaborators. (2022). Global, regional, and national burden of 12 mental disorders in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019\. The Lancet Psychiatry, 9(2), 137–150\. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2215-0366(21)00395-3 ###### Health, N. (2025). The gut-mental health connection: How to improve both for overall well-being. Nuvance Health. https://www.nuvancehealth.org/health-tips-and-news/the-gut-mental-health-connection ###### Johns Hopkins Medicine. (2019). The brain-gut Connection. John Hopkins Medicine. [https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/the-brain-gut-connection](https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/the-brain-gut-connection?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Li, Z., Tao, X., Wang, D., Pu, J., Liu, Y., Gui, S., Zhong, X., Yang, D., Zhou, H., Tao, W., Chen, W., Chen, X., Chen, Y., Chen, X., & Xie, P. (2024). Alterations of the gut microbiota in patients with schizophrenia. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 15, 1366311\. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1366311 ###### Morrow, R. (2021, November 17). 9 Soulicious Soup Recipes. Foodmatters.com; Food Matters. https://www.foodmatters.com/recipe/9-soulicious-soup-recipes --- ### Your Kitchen; Your Chem Lab! URL: https://youthstemline.com/your-kitchen-your-chem-lab/ Last updated: 2026-06-13T00:03:02.000Z By Kathleen Jiang \~4 minutes --- Cooking is instrumental in everyone’s life. Think about how many times you’ve eaten today! Eggs for breakfast, milk as a drink, pirate booty’s as a snack, mac n cheese for lunch, and pizza for dinner. We all spend minutes, even hours of our lives simply deciding what foods to eat, but have we ever dug deeper into what chemicals we’re eating? After all, cooking is chemistry and something has to keep that twinkie immortal! In this article, we will take out our detective gloves to examine what we’re really putting in our bodies, then uncover the history of cooking, and finally discover the impact of cooking on American culture. Let’s head to the lab! When looking at a typical American kitchen, you’ll notice a trend of processed foods such as deli meat, sauces, and pastas. This happens because processing often alters the food, leading to a sharp increase in sugars, sodium, and calories. While processing itself is not inherently bad, the abundance of ultra processed foods (a certain kind of extremely unhealthy processed food with abundant fats, calories, and salts) has been linked to higher cancer risk. This is due to the production process which often adds additives or strips nutrients from the food. While most foods undergo some kind of process, this article will refer to ultra processed foods such as packaged snacks, bread, cereal, processed meat, condiments, sweets and alcoholic beverages, and candies and desserts. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-7-w-1024-1.png) Ultra Processed Foods / Unhealthy Snacks in a Cart / Public Domain Media / Picryl © Processed foods such as cheese, noodles, and even oil have always existed as a main staple in ancient diets. As food has evolved, new processing techniques such as the invention of hermetling bottling in 1809 has led to widespread canning and tinning, while Louis Pasteur’s discovery of pasteurization in 1864 inadvertently caused the increasing popularity of processed foods. During World War I, the convenience of processed food continued to remain relevant, as people rapidly advanced machinery creating microwaves and blenders, and sought food that was nutritionally dense to fight malnutrition and disease. In the modern age, the most recent rise of processed foods is credited to food marketing. Fast food companies spend billions of dollars in marketing each year, and according to wildhealth.com, in 2017, 80% of their ads focused on candy, snacks, and fast food which are all ultra-processed foods (UPFs). Bright. Colorful. Iconic. Everyone has fallen for the sugary promises without realizing they are being preyed on by these advertisers. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-8-w-926.png) Louis Pasteur Experiment / Wikimedia Commons © Label marketing has also had a detrimental effect on the food industry. The FDA sets standards that companies must abide by, however many of these standards are outdated and the 1994 definition of “healthy” to be placed on food products was changed only three years ago which resulted in limits being set for the amount of fat, cholesterol, and sodium in a product. We may sacrifice nutrition for convenience, but these unhealthy habits are linked to 30+ health conditions and are proven to increase risk of complications such as cardiovascular disease, cancers, obesity, and type 2 diabetes. As Dr. Devies puts it “Ultraprocessed foods are better at preserving shelf life than human life.” Data shows that 57% of adult diets and 67% of children’s diets consist of ultra-processed foods. The laboratory may create a product that has an excellent appeal, and a long shelf life, but do not be fooled. It is devoid of the important nutrients that our bodies actually crave. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-9-w-600.png) Curbing Intake of Processed Foods / Think IAS Think Drishti © Can you name 5 ingredients in a cheetos bag? Processed foods have become a major component in many American diets contributing to the obesity and overweight crises which sever our connection to the natural foods that our ancestors ate. While eating junk may be more convenient, the physical effects will catch you in the long run. --- # References ###### Berg, S. (2024, November 8). What doctors wish patients knew about Ultraprocessed Foods. American Medical Association. https://www.ama-assn.org/public-health/prevention-wellness/what-doctors-wish-patients-knew-about-ultraprocessed-foods ###### Drishti IAS. (2024, April 24). Curbing intake of Processed Foods. https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-editorials/curbing-intake-of-processed-foods ###### The rise of processed foods in the United States. RSS. (n.d.). https://www.wildhealth.com/blog/everything-to-know-about-the-rise-of-processed-foods-in-the-united-states ###### Thomme, G. V. (n.d.). 7 examples of processed food. MD Anderson Cancer Center. https://www.mdanderson.org/cancerwise/7-examples-of-processed-food.h00-159621801.html --- ### Chemical Pollution: A Threat to Global Health and Ecosystems URL: https://youthstemline.com/chemical-pollution-a-threat-to-global-health-and-ecosystems/ Last updated: 2026-06-13T00:03:58.000Z By Amy Yan \~4 minutes --- Scientists have recently declared chemical pollution an environmental threat as severe as climate change. Specifically, chemical pollution is the contamination of air, land, or water with high levels of unnatural substances, or pollutants. As these chemical pollutants continue to quickly spread throughout the globe, the multitude of risks they pose is only growing. # The Severity of Chemical Pollution The severity of chemical pollution is emphasized by the wide range of substances it encompasses and their persistence in the biosphere. Examples of chemical pollutants include volatile organic compounds (VOCs), heavy metals, air contaminants, persistent organic pollutants (POPs), pesticides, and PFAS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances), to name a few. Most of these chemicals do not break down over time; instead, they accumulate year after year, causing lasting damage to the Earth. They are found in everything from rivers to livestock, and according to the CDC, PFAS have been detected in the bloodstreams of about 97% of Americans. This is a global problem, too; a 2025 study conducted in Bihar, India, revealed that nearly 90% of children and 80% of pregnant women tested in the state had unsafe amounts of lead in their blood. Furthermore, the poor regulation of industrial waste and aging infrastructure in many regions of Africa and Southeast Asia allows toxic metals such as lead and mercury to contaminate drinking water and agricultural soil. ![](https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/pfas/images/PFOS-blood-levels.jpg?_=18343) *PFOS (a specific type of PFAS) levels for various populations* / Center for Disease Control © Scientists have warned that chemical pollution has already crossed the limit for what is safe. The volume of synthetic chemicals currently in circulation has far exceeded the Earth’s capacity to manage them safely, and the sheer variety of synthetic compounds, over 350,000 globally, makes regulation nearly impossible without extensive global action. # Effects on Health & Ecosystems For humans, exposure to chemical pollutants can cause cancer, sterility, developmental diseases, immune system damage, and disruption of brain and hormone function. Columbia University's School of Public Health covered several significant ways chemical pollutants harm the body: DNA damage, genomic alterations and mutations, disrupted development in children, mitochondrial dysfunction, interference with regular bodily functions, endocrine disruption, increased susceptibility to allergies and infections, hindered neurotransmission, and impaired nervous system function. As for the environment, PFAS have been detected in livestock, fish, and crops, affecting food safety and biodiversity. Chemical spills pollute rivers and seas, killing aquatic life and disrupting ecosystems. Soil contaminated with pollutants becomes infertile, reducing agricultural efficiency. # What's Being Done Though serious, attempts to rectify the situation have been slow-going. The United States’ Environmental Protection Agency has recently introduced stricter drinking water standards for PFAS, with limits in the parts-per-trillion range. Several states have launched lawsuits against chemical manufacturers in order to force them to fund cleanup efforts. Meanwhile, in Europe, policymakers are moving to ban classes of harmful chemicals instead of regulating them one by one, a necessary approach given the scope of the crisis, according to scientists. The UN has begun negotiations for a plastics and associated chemicals treaty, which would be the first major international agreement to limit harmful substances since the Montreal Protocol on ozone-depleting chemicals in 1987\. Moreover, researchers are in the process of developing technology aiming to destroy PFAS molecules previously thought to be indestructible. ![](https://www.battelle.org/images/default-source/products/pfas-annihilator/annihilator-mobile-unit-callout.jpg?sfvrsn=947a4dd2_0) *Mobile version of Battelle's PFAS Annihilator technology* / Battelle © Even so, progress can be unsteady and quite slow. Many poorer nations lack the infrastructure to monitor chemical pollution as well as the political power to hold corporations accountable for any potential damage they cause. Since these chemicals can be found everywhere, phasing them out requires a great deal of effort, starting with change on a systematic scale. --- # References ###### Boztas, S. (2024, January 4). The race to destroy the toxic “forever chemicals” polluting our world. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2024/jan/04/the-race-to-destroy-the-toxic-forever-chemicals-polluting-our-world ###### Carrington, D. (2022, January 18). Chemical pollution has passed safe limit for humanity, say scientists. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jan/18/chemical-pollution-has-passed-safe-limit-for-humanity-say-scientists ###### Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024, November 12). Fast facts: Pfas in the U.S. population. ATSDR. https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/pfas/data-research/facts-stats/index.html ###### Eight ways chemical pollutants harm the body. Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health. (2021, March 8). https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/news/eight-ways-chemical-pollutants-harm-body ###### Gayle, D. (2025, August 6). Chemical pollution a threat comparable to climate change, scientists warn. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2025/aug/06/chemical-pollution-threat-comparable-climate-change-scientists-warn-novel-entities ###### Hogue, C. (2021, December 29). Pfas destruction technologies are starting to emerge. Chemical & Engineering News. https://cen.acs.org/environment/persistent-pollutants/PFAS-destruction-technologies-starting-emerge/100/i1 ###### TOI. (2025, August 11). Study finds widespread lead poisoning among children and pregnant women in bihar: Patna news - times of India. The Times of India. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/study-finds-widespread-lead-poisoning-among-children-and-pregnant-women-in-bihar/articleshow/123222254.cms --- ### What the Hail? The Science Behind ‘Monster Hail’ URL: https://youthstemline.com/what-the-hail-the-science-behind-monster-hail/ Last updated: 2026-06-13T00:04:11.000Z By Alan Chen \~5 minutes --- Recently, communities across the globe have seen unusually intense and violent hailstorms. Many have noticed huge ‘monster hail,’ which can be the same size as a small Labubu and cause significant damage to people and their property. This growth in hail size can be traced back to stronger updrafts and warmer temperatures, which I will expand on in this article. Communities will have to learn to deal with these powerful storms as hail sizes continue to rise. # How is Hail Formed? Hail is made when raindrops are lifted by updrafts, or warm rising air, into the upper atmosphere. There, the temperatures are cooler, and the raindrops freeze into small particles of ice. As the ice particles are carried around by the updrafts, they bump into supercooled water droplets. Supercooled water droplets are raindrops that are still in liquid form despite being at below-freezing temperatures. When these droplets collide with the ice particles, they immediately freeze onto the particles, making them bigger. As this cycle continues, more and more droplets attach to the hailstone, causing it to grow larger and larger. Once the hailstone gets too heavy for the updrafts to support it, the hailstone will fall to the ground. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-w-1024-2.png) Perth hail size compared to hand / Wikimedia Commons © According to atmospheric scientist Brian Tang, there are two main hypotheses that potentially explain hail’s increasing size: One explanation involves Earth’s rising temperatures. In recent years, there have been warmer overall air temperatures due to heat being trapped in the atmosphere by greenhouse gases. As that air gets warmer, it also becomes more moist, as warmer air can hold more water vapor. Because there’s more moisture, more supercooled water droplets will be found in the upper parts of storms, where temperatures are below freezing. With greater access to these droplets, hailstones can grow even larger. Another factor articulated by Brian Tang is an increase in unstable air masses coming from western North America. As these air masses move east, they form thunderstorms over flatter areas. These air masses are formed because of many reasons. One of these is the accelerated melting of mountain snowpacks, which is caused by rising temperatures. As snowpacks melt more rapidly, the ground beneath them gets heated. This heating, in turn, also warms the air near the ground while the air higher up remains cool. This contrast in temperature creates even more atmospheric instability, which leads to the development of unstable air masses, and thus, thunderstorms. But these hail sizes could only be the beginning. According to a study conducted by the Weather, Climate and Society Research Group at Northern Illinois University, “Although fewer hail days are expected over most areas in the future, an increase in the mean hail size is projected, with fewer small hail events and a shift toward a more frequent occurrence of larger hail.” The study goes on to report that smaller hailstones (<4 cm in diameter) are expected to become less frequent, while larger stones are expected to increase by 15-75% in size. In other words, it was concluded that hailstorms may become less common overall; however, the small, relatively harmless hail that makes up the bulk of hailstorms today may be replaced by larger, more destructive hail. We’re already seeing early signs of this shift. The Iowa Environmental Mesonet recorded 1307 instances of 2+ inch hail in 2024, compared to just 714 in the year prior. Likewise, Colorado set its state record for hail size in 2023 with a 5.45 inch hailstone- that’s about two tennis balls (0.00126 football fields) wide! ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-1-w-960.png) Roofs Failing Due To Damage / Designer Roofing © # How does this affect you? The effect of these intense hailstorms is clear: according to Versik, roof repair value in 2024 reached almost 31 billion dollars, a 30% increase from just two years prior. Wind and hail were the primary drivers, making up almost half of all roof-related insurance claims. Some helpful ways to prevent property damage include: - Parking cars in garages or under shelters - Trimming trees to prevent falling branches - Clearing gutters to stop them from overflowing - Replacing windows and roofing If your area is expected to experience a hailstorm, stay up to date with weather forecasts and pay attention to warning systems. Make sure to have an enclosed room in your house with no windows and stay there until weather services confirm that the storm has passed. # Conclusion In recent years, we have seen hail grow larger and larger, and this trend shows no signs of stopping. As hailstorms continue to evolve and become more unpredictable, it is extremely important to stay informed as we adapt to the continuing changes in our climate. It is important to realize that the trends we are seeing are indicative of a larger shift in our climate. Outside of hailstorms, numerous other gradual shifts in our weather are taking place. We are seeing extended droughts, rising sea levels, and longer wildfire seasons as well. While it is still debatable whether these shifts are man-made or part of a natural cycle, it is clear that hail is just one symptom of a larger change that will have lasting effects on human life for years to come. --- # References ###### Ferrell, J. (2025, May 6). Is climate change making hailstones larger? https://www.accuweather.com/en/severe-weather/is-climate-change-making-hailstones-larger/1652329 ###### Gensini, V. A., Ashley, W. S., Michaelis, A. C., Haberlie, A. M., Goodin, J., & Wallace, B. C. (2024, August 21). Hailstone size dichotomy in a warming climate. Nature News. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41612-024-00728-9 ###### Hail basics. NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory. (n.d.). https://www.nssl.noaa.gov/education/svrwx101/hail/ ###### Lada, B. (2023, August 16). Colorado adds entry to record books following an incredible hailstorm. https://www.accuweather.com/en/severe-weather/colorado-adds-entry-to-record-books-following-an-incredible-hailstorm/1570293 ###### U.S. roof claims costs reached over $30 billion in 2024, underscoring evolving risks. Verisk. (n.d.). https://www.verisk.com/company/newsroom/u.s.-roof-claims-costs-reached-over-$30-billion-in-2024-underscoring-evolving-risks/ --- ### Would you still love me if I were a worm? URL: https://youthstemline.com/would-you-still-love-me-if-i-were-a-worm-2/ Last updated: 2026-06-13T00:06:42.000Z By Michelle Cheng \~12 minutes --- # How Scientists are Using Worms to Learn About Humans Worms and humans could not possibly be any more different. And yet, scientists have been studying *C. elegans (caenorhabditis elegans)* to learn more about the human body over 70 years. These unassuming worms have aided in groundbreaking findings in medicine for human diseases such as Alzheimer’s, AIDS, and stroke. What makes *C. elegans* so valuable is not its complexity, but rather its simplicity. Because so many of its biological pathways are conserved in humans, this worm provides a uniquewindow into the fundamental processes of life, including cell division, gene regulation, neural signaling, and aging. With a transparent body, rapid life cycle, and a genetic makeup that mirrors much of our own, *C. elegans* has become an essential organism in modern biomedical research. Understanding how scientists use these worms can help us appreciate not just what we’ve already learned, but also the vast potential that still lies ahead. # What is C. elegans? *C. elegans* is a free-living nematode that has become one of the most important model organisms in research. It measures approximately one millimeter in length and naturally lives in temperate soil environments, where it feeds on bacteria like *e. coli*. It is non-parasitic and exists in two sexes: hermaphrodites, which are capable of self-reproduction, and males, which occur at a less than 0.1% chance under normal conditions. The hermaphroditic reproductive mode allows for the maintenance of isogenic populations, which is advantageous for genetic studies. ![](https://invivobiosystems.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/worm-101-pt-1.jpg) Anatomy of an adult *C. elegans* hermaphrodite / EnVivo Biosystems © The adult *C. elegans* hermaphrodite has exactly 959 somatic cells while the adult male *C. elegans* has exactly 1,031 somatic cells. The worm’s relatively simple anatomy includes muscles, a nervous system, a digestive system, a reproductive system, and an excretory system. The organism develops through four larval stages before reaching adulthood, with a complete lifecycle taking just two to three weeks under laboratory conditions. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/screenshot-2025-10-09-173838-1-w-777.png) The life cycle of *C. elegans* / National Institute of Health © Genetically, *C. elegans* has a compact genome consisting of about 100 million base pairs across six chromosomes. It was the first multicellular organism to have its entire genome sequenced in 1998 in a project led by John Sulston and Bob Waterstons. Its genome is highly amenable to manipulation using a variety of modern techniques. # Why do scientists study C. elegans specifically? First introduced into studies by Sydney Brenner in the 1960s to study neurological development and the nervous system, the nematode proved itself in the lab with its unique combination of genetic, anatomical, and practical features that make it exceptionally suitable for biomedical research. Remarkably, around 60-70% of human disease-associated genes have counterparts in the *C. elegans* genome, making it an incredibly valuable model for studying human biology. Many genes responsible for critical cellular functions are evolutionarily conserved between worms and humans. Therefore, scientists can manipulate the function of these genes in *C. elegans* to study their roles in disease without the complexity or ethical challenges of working with human subjects or higher animals like mice or primates. ![](https://www.tandfonline.com/cms/asset/b2ec0d22-3ef4-43df-a2cf-ea4324f32e5d/kcam_a_10917985_f0001.gif) Analogous counterparts of the human nervous systems in *C. elegans* / Taylor and Francis Online © Adult hermaphrodites’ cells, which remain the same in every single worm, each of which has been identified and mapped, allowing for detailed tracking of development, differentiation, and cellular processes. Its transparent body enables real-time visualization of internal structures, including neurons, muscles, reproductive organs, and digestive tissues. The worm, which has a simple nervous system of only 302 cells, is one of the only organisms where every neural connection is known. Additionally, *C. elegans* has a short life cycle of two to three weeks and is easy to culture in large numbers, making it especially convenient for developmental and aging studies. # How do scientists modify C. elegans in experiments? Scientists modify and study *C. elegans* using four primary methods: RNA interference (RNAi), CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing, transgenic techniques, and drug screening. ![](https://media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fjbiol97/MediaObjects/13061_2008_Article_133_Fig1_HTML.jpg?as=webp) Different modes of administration of dsRNAs for RNA interference / Biomed Central © One of the most widely used techniques for modifying gene expression in *C. elegans* is RNA interference (RNAi). This method allows scientists to silence specific genes to observe the effects of their absence. In *C. elegans* RNAi can be easily administered by feeding worms with genetically engineered E. coli bacteria that produce double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) matching the gene of interest. Once ingested, the dsRNA activates the worm’s endogenous RNAi pathway, leading to the degradation of the corresponding messaging RNA and a reduction or elimination of the target protein. This method is highly efficient, non-invasive, and relatively easy to perform, making it ideal for large-scale genetic screens. Researchers can identify genes involved in key processes such as embryonic development, aging, metabolism, and neurodegeneration. The CRISPR-Cas9 system has revolutionized genetic research in *C. elegans* by enabling precise, targeted alterations to the genome. Scientists introduce a complex composed of the Cas9 enzyme and a guide RNA (gRNA) into the worm, which directs the Cas9 to a specific DNA sequence. Once there, Cas9 introduces a double-strand break in the DNA. The cell’s natural repair mechanisms then fix the break, and researchers can insert, delete, or replace specific DNA sequences. In *C. elegans*, CRISPR can create mutants mimicking human disease alleles or study regulatory elements of genes. This method provides a level of control that surpasses RNAi, as it allows for permanent and heritable genetic modifications. Scientists often inject the CRISPR-Cas9 components directly into the gonads of adult hermaphrodites, ensuring that the genetic changes are passed onto the offspring. ![](https://www.leica-microsystems.com/fileadmin/_processed_/c/9/csm_C_elegans-Brightfield-Confocal_46c3affdc4.jpg) Image of the pharynx of *C. elegans* expressing GFP / Leica Microsystems © Transgenic techniques in *C. elegans* insert foreign DNA into the worm’s genome to monitor gene expression, trace cell lineages, or study protein localization. One common approach is to fuse a gene of interest to a reporter gene such as green fluorescent protein (GFP). When this gene is expressed, the fluorescent tag can be visualized in living worms using fluorescence microscopy. This allows researchers to observe where and when specific genes are active, how proteins move within the cells, and how cells interact during development or disease progression. Transgenes are typically introduced via microinjection into the syncytial gonads of adult worms, leading to the formation of extrachromosomal arrays inherited by the next generation. Stable lines can also be created through CRISPR or chemical integration methods. These visual tools are particularly powerful due to the worm’s transparent body, which makes it possible to track fluorescent signals in real time throughout the entire organism. *C. elegans* is an excellent system for drug screening and environmental toxicology due to its small size, short lifespan, and genetic tractability. Researchers can test the effects of thousands of compounds quickly and cost-effectively. In these experiments, worms are exposed to chemical agents in liquid or on agar plates, and their survival, movement, reproduction, or specific cellular markers are measured to assess the biological impact. Using genetically modified strains that mimic human disease pathways, scientists can screen for drugs that alleviate symptoms or restore normal function. These tests provide an efficient first step in drug development, singling out promising candidates before moving onto mammalian models. ![](https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2018/06/pressimage_eng.gif) The cell lineage and the programmed cell death in *C. elegans* / Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2002 One of the most groundbreaking discoveries made using *C. elegans* was the genetic basis of programmed cell death, or apoptosis, a critical process in both development and disease. The research was led by Dr. H. Robert Horvitz at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Horvitz and his colleagues began studying cell death in *C. elegans* in the 1980s by tracing the fate of every cell in the worm’s body during development. They discovered that exactly 131 cells always die in the developing hermaphrodite and that this process was genetically controlled. Through genetic screening, Horvitz identified three core genes that regulated apoptosis: ced-3, ced-4, and ced-9\. By inducing mutations in these genes, the researchers could either prevent or accelerate cell death in the worm. This revealed that cell death is not a passive consequence of damage, but rather an active, genetically programmed event. The mammalian counterparts of these genes, like caspases and BCL-2, were later discovered to play central roles in cancer, autoimmune diseases, and neurodegeneration, making this research foundational to modern medicine. Horvitz was awarded the 2002 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work along with Sydney Brenner and John Sulston. In addition, *C. elegans* has contributed to our understanding of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s. One major study was led by Dr. Christopher Link at the University of Colorado in the late 1990s. Link developed a transgenic *C. elegans* strain that expressed the human β-amyloid (Aβ) peptide in muscle cells. This is the same peptide that forms toxic plaques in the brains of Alzheimer’s patients. In the study, the researchers observed that worms expressing Aβ developed progressive paralysis as they aged, mimicking aspects of human Alzheimer’s pathology. They then used this model to screen for genetic mutations and chemical compounds that could suppress the toxic effects of Aβ. Their work identified several genes involved in protein folding and stress response that modified Aβ toxicity. This demonstrated that *C. elegans* could be used as a fast and cost-effective in vivo system for identifying genetic and pharmacological modifiers of Alzheimer’s disease. The worm model has since then been adapted by numerous labs worldwide to study tau protein aggregation and mitochondrial dysfunction, expanding our knowledge of neurodegenerative pathways. ![](https://wi.mit.edu/sites/default/files/inline-images/micrographs.png) Micrographs showing visible signs of aging in *C. elegans* from a 2-day old adult (A) to a 7-day old adult (B) to a 13-day old adult (C) / Whitehead Institute © Another major discovery made using *C. elegans* was the link between insulin signaling and lifespan regulation. Dr. Cynthia Kenyon at the University of California, San Francisco, led a series of experiments in the 1990s that transformed the field of aging research. Kenyon’s team discovered that a single mutation in the daf-2 gene, which encodes an insulin/IGF-1 receptor, could double the worm’s lifespan. They found that when daf-2 signaling was reduced, it activated another gene, daf-16, which promoted the expression of stress-resistance and longevity-related genes. To test this, Kenyon used genetic mutants and tracked their development and survival across generations. The *C. elegans* with the daf-2 mutation lived significantly longer than their wild-type counterparts and were more resistant to oxidative stress and heat. These findings provided the first clear evidence that aging could be actively regulated by specific genetic pathways rather than being a passive deterioration process. Later studies found that similar insulin/IGF-1 pathways exist in mammals, including humans, opening new therapeutic avenues for age-related diseases, diabetes, and metabolic disorders. # So what does the future hold? The future of *C. elegans* in scientific research is remarkably promising, with its applications continually expanding as technology and genetic tools advance. With the rise of CRISPR-Cas9, optogenetics, and high-throughout screening techniques, researchers can now manipulate *C. elegans* with unprecedented precision to study complex biological processes such as epigenetics, gut-brain interactions, and real-time neuronal activity. In the coming years, *C. elegans* is expected to play an even greater role in personalized medicine and systems biology. Its potential as a predictive model for human gene function could aid in understanding the consequences of mutations found in patient genomes, leading to more tailored treatments. The worm’s short life cycle, fully mapped genome, and conserved biological pathways make it an ideal model for rapidly identifying new therapeutic targets and testing drugs, especially for age-related and neurodegenerative diseases. Despite its simplicity, this tiny nematode continues to open doors to complex human biology, proving that even the smallest organisms can have the biggest impact on science and medicine. --- # References ###### Alvarez, Javier, et al. “Modeling Alzheimer’s Disease in Caenorhabditis Elegans.” Biomedicines, vol. 10, no. 2, 1 Feb. 2022, p. 288, www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/10/2/288/htm#B52-biomedicines-10-00288, https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines10020288. ###### Apfeld, Javier, and Scott Alper. “What Can We Learn about Human Disease from the Nematode C. Elegans?” Methods in Molecular Biology (Clifton, N.J.), vol. 1706, 2018, pp. 53–75, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6391162/, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-7471-9\_4. ###### “C Elegans: The Early Worm Gets the Sequence.” Yourgenome.org, 2024, www.yourgenome.org/theme/ic-elegans-i-the-early-worm-gets-the-sequence/. ###### “C. Elegans 101: A White Paper - InVivo Biosystems.” InVivo Biosystems, 26 Jan. 2024, invivobiosystems.com/disease-modeling/c-elegans-101-a-white-paper/. ###### Chiu, Hui, et al. “C. Elegans as a Genetic Model to Identify Novel Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Nervous System Regeneration.” Cell Adhesion & Migration, vol. 5, no. 5, 2011, pp. 387–394, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3218605/, https://doi.org/10.4161/cam.5.5.17985. ###### Edgley, Mark. “What Is Caenorhabditis Elegans and Why Work on It? - Caenorhabditis Genetics Center (CGC) - College of Biological Sciences.” Umn.edu, University of Minnesota, 2022, cgc.umn.edu/what-is-c-elegans. ###### Félix, Marie-Anne. “RNA Interference in Nematodes and the Chance That Favored Sydney Brenner.” Journal of Biology, vol. 7, no. 9, 2008, p. 34, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2776389/, https://doi.org/10.1186/jbiol97. ###### Link, C. D. “Expression of Human Beta-Amyloid Peptide in Transgenic Caenorhabditis Elegans.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 92, no. 20, 26 Sept. 1995, pp. 9368–9372, www.pnas.org/content/92/20/9368.short, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.92.20.9368. ###### Riddle, Donald L, et al. “The Biological Model.” Nih.gov, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 2014, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK20086/. ###### “The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2002.” NobelPrize.org, 2019, www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2002/press-release/. ###### Venkatesan, Arun, and Krishma Adatia. “Anti-NMDA-Receptor Encephalitis: From Bench to Clinic.” ACS Chemical Neuroscience, vol. 8, no. 12, 7 Nov. 2017, pp. 2586–2595, https://doi.org/10.1021/acschemneuro.7b00319. ###### Wheelan, Sarah J, et al. “Human and Nematode Orthologs — Lessons from the Analysis of 1800 Human Genes and the Proteome of Caenorhabditis Elegans.” Gene, vol. 238, no. 1, Sept. 1999, pp. 163–170, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-1119(99)00298-x. ###### “Whitehead Institute of MIT.” Whitehead Institute of MIT, wi.mit.edu/unusual-labmates-how-c-elegans-wormed-its-way-science-stardom. ###### Wolozin, Benjamin, et al. “Watching Worms Whither: Modeling Neurodegeneration in C. Elegans.” Progress in Molecular Biology and Translational Science, vol. 100, 2011, pp. 499–514, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21377635, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384878-9.00015-7. ###### “Wonderous Worms.” NIH News in Health, 3 July 2025, newsinhealth.nih.gov/2025/07/wonderous-worms. Accessed 1 Aug. 2025. ###### Zhang, Siwen, et al. “Caenorhabditis Elegans as a Useful Model for Studying Aging Mutations.” Frontiers in Endocrinology, vol. 11, 5 Oct. 2020, https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2020.554994. --- ### Beneath The Skin: The Alarming Reality of Parasitic Worms URL: https://youthstemline.com/beneath-the-skin-the-alarming-reality-of-parasitic-worms/ Last updated: 2026-06-13T00:07:04.000Z By Katherine Johnson \~13 minutes --- Have you ever had a parasite? Maybe you ate an unwashed fruit, had an open wound, or even stepped on something you shouldn't have. Nevertheless, parasites are everywhere and more common than you may think. In this article, we’ll go over parasites as a whole; including a review on what they are, theories on evolution, and a deep dive into a specific parasite. Overall, parasitism is one of the most complicated relationships seen in nature, and whilst it'd take a mountain of explanation to understand it all, hopefully this article can deepen your current understanding and offer some insightful information. # What Are Parasites? By definition, parasites are organisms that live off of another organism or “host”. There are many “species” or categories of parasites, ranging from utterly harmless to ultimately fatal. Some of the more common parasites you may have heard of include tapeworm, roundworm, pinworm, etc. While there are countless ways to get infected, tapeworm for example, only needs its eggs to be accidentally swallowed . Fortunately such cases are rare in developed countries like the U.S. Additionally, these parasites are objectively easy to get rid of. Albendazole is a very common medication used to treat parasitic worm infections, and taking a few doses should cure the disease. Oftentimes, albendazole is crucial in mass drug administration as an attempt to control and lessen cases of infection, especially within developing countries. So what happens when you get a parasite? Well, it is impossible to give one direct answer. Say you are infected with a common intestinal worm, perhaps unknowingly you have ingested pinworm eggs. Some symptoms might include gastrointestinal issues, vomiting, abdominal pain, extreme itching, and even irritation, all common with other intestinal parasites. You go to the doctor, get some blood work, and thankfully they diagnose you, treat you with albendazole, and everything is back to normal. But what about when it's not that simple? Some parasites are much more dangerous, and at times, even incurable. Malaria, a very widely known global health concern, is a single-celled parasite spread by mosquitos. In some cases, such as that of Plasmodium falciparum (the most dangerous type of malaria) once infected, it can take only 24 hours to kill. While there are treatments and improvements in the medical world for malaria, developing countries are still struggling with the disease to this day. Another deadly parasite is brain-eating amoeba or Naegleria Fowleri. Found in infected waters such as lakes, this parasite enters the brain through the nose while you are swimming. While it is extremely rare, fatality rates are nearly 100 percent. Naegleria fowleri destroys the brain tissue causing swelling and oftentimes complete coma. Once the symptoms set in within a week of infection, it will take roughly five days until death. Unfortunately, there are countless more of these dangerous parasites including schistosomes, which we will cover later. However for now, let’s see how these parasites came to be. # The Evolution of Parasites Though there are countless theories determining the exact evolutionary path or origin of parasites, there is no factually known truth. Overall, the study of evolution of organisms is an extremely difficult and unending task. To truly form a complete cycle of evolution you have to not only know the events that took place, but their total effect and order., Unfortunately we cannot go back into the past, but, there are some pretty strong theories regarding parasite evolution. It is safe to presume that parasites arose millions of years ago from previously freeliving organisms. Many researchers believe that the majority of present-day parasitic life forms evolved after being ingested by their host. This theory, called ‘freeliving ancestors’, describes how freeliving organisms evolved to survive within their host by gaining their needed nutrients from within the host’s stomach. As mentioned earlier, some of the most common or well known parasites, such as the tapeworm, show stark similarities with this theory. On the other hand, another well known potential theory is that the parasite-host relationship may have formed from a predator-prey relationship, where the parasite acts as the predator. Ancestors of such parasites have been found to have collected similar nutrients from their prey as parasites collect from their host. This theory is common in ectoparasitism, in which the parasite lives within, or on, the host’s skin. Another theory to consider are facultative parasites. This represents the “hybrid” of parasitic characteristics and regular freeliving organisms. They provide the possible transitional state, or the “evolutionary stepping stones” within the transition to full blown parasitism. Facultative parasites can survive both on their own, and within, or on, a host. While dissecting facultative parasites as a whole calls for a separate discussion, it is important to understand a few things, for one: phenotypic plasticity. This refers to the flexibility of an organism’s phenotype, or observable characteristics. An organism with strong phenotypic plasticity has the ability to adapt more fluidly to its environment. For example, a facultative parasite may increase survival under specific conditions and overtime adapt on favorable heritable variations (in this case: parasites), also known as the Baldwin effect. Similar to the Baldwin effect, genetic assimilation, which represents phenotypic plasticity under specific conditions as well, is more set in place. This implies that eventually the organism's plasticity will decrease, and the trait will no longer need the environmental trigger for it to show as it becomes fixed or stuck in place. Once again, even with immense research and evidence, the exact path of evolution for parasites is difficult to place. Even with potentially knowing events that were detrimental to the evolutionary path, we still cannot specifically know which traits may have caused what. An interesting metaphor would be to think about how “noses might not have been selected to carry glasses.” While the characteristic of having a nose is useful for wearing glasses, it certainly didn’t evolve for that reason. Likewise, just because an organism has a quality that relates to parasitism, it may have nothing to do with it. For example, some traits we may have thought were specific to the evolution of parasites, have been found in completely different freeliving organisms with no real connection. Additionally, a parasitic trait can evolve in different ways as well. For example, the image below demonstrates the inverse relationship between various characteristics and parasitism. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-14-w-505.png) Evolution: Causality and the Origin of Parasitism / Jan Janouskovec / ScienceDirect © # Parasites: Today's World There are many misconceptions when it comes to parasites. Admittedly, parasites are utterly terrifying, so intense phobias and even psychosis aren’t farfetched. However, these false beliefs can lead to incorrect, useless, and even sometimes harmful homemade “treatments”. For example, have you ever heard of a parasite cleanse? A parasite cleanse is a form of detoxing the body through supplements, diets, or drinks. They frequently include different types of herbs, oils, and other supplements. These “treatments” are not medically necessary nor are they FDA approved. There is no evidence of these cleanses treating any parasites, and sometimes they can be harmful to your gut, causing other issues. If you believe you may be infected with a parasite, it is important to get proper medical help. That being said, let's look into the current state of the medical world in relation to parasites. According to the World Health Organization, or WHO, approximately one quarter of the world's population is infected with some type of intestinal worm, with even higher rates in developing countries. Although this statistic might seem concerning, there have been many improvements in the medical world, as well as constant research being done. For one, the mass drug administration system, as mentioned once earlier, is seeing vast improvements with providing ample medicine and treatments to those who need it. In particular, nanotechnology, the method of manipulating matter at the near-atomic scale, has helped tremendously in targeted drug delivery. Deeper research regarding genes and interactions of parasites with the host, is assisting in the making of treatments and vaccines. Whilst parasitic infections remain a problem today, there is much hope to help the issue decline within the future. # Schistosomes By now you have read through much information about parasites, specifically what they are, their evolution, and even some medical overviews. So now let's take a deep dive about a specific parasite: Schistosomes. Schistosomes are a type of parasitic flatworm, distinctively known as blood flukes, and are the root of a terrible, oftentimes chronic disease called schistosomiasis. So what do you need to know? Schistosoma are believed to have originated in the supercontinent of Gondwana around 120 million years ago, from their early parasitic ancestors, which primarily infected hippos. Interestingly, they began their life by primarily infecting a snail, parallel to their life cycle today, which you’ll read about later. From that point, through host migration, they traveled to Asia and Africa, where they are primarily found today. Eventually, the parasite evolved into other forms, more specifically schistosoma, predominantly infecting humans. The life cycle of schistosoma has many stages, including two hosts. First, eggs are passed down from the previous host, through urine or stool, into water. These eggs, which then hatch into larvae, must now find their first host: a snail. Within these snails, the schistosoma continues to mature, releasing once again into water. As you are harmlessly swimming or bathing in seemingly clean waters, the schistosoma penetrates the skin, entering and infecting your body. From that point, they travel to your liver, where they fully mature into adult worms, and travel to the veins in the intestines or bladder to mate soon after. At this point you could have been infected for potentially months. Other than a slight skin irritation where they had entered your body previously, you don’t start showing symptoms until you get Katayama fever or the acute stage of schistosomiasis, lasting for a couple weeks. Katayama fever is a hypersensitivity or immune complex reaction to the eggs being deposited in the body's tissue. Symptoms of this stage are categorized by fever, abdominal pain, cough, muscle and joint pain, and so much more. At this point the disease is still possibly reversible. Treatments such as preziquantel are common for treating this disease and can help those infected formulate a full recovery. However, some people don’t necessarily show symptoms until it's too late. For instance, in 2021 an estimated 176.1 million out of 251.4 million people were not treated on time. The next stage is chronic Schistosomiasis. While technically the worms can be killed through specific treatment, they can cause irreversible organ damage with life long affects. Furthermore, the long lifespan of the adult worms can make it exceedingly difficult to treat. These worms can live in the body for over a decade, laying hundreds of eggs daily. While these eggs are produced in order to be released in the urine and stool, they frequently get trapped in the tissues of your organs. As they get trapped, the body's immune response causes extreme inflammation in the organs, primarily the liver, bladder, and intestines. Alongside many other implications due to the lodging of the eggs, such as fibrosis (the formation of scar tissue), can lead to organ failure, increased risk of cancer, and ultimately death. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-15-w-800.png) Essentials of Glycobiology \[Internet\] 4th edition / Figure 43.7 / National Library of Medicine © # Schistosomiasis: Potential Future Those with schistosomiasis often spend their lives in and out of hospitals. As time goes on, their bodies begin shutting down or falling victim to other illnesses. Schistosomiasis is an extremely hard disease to deal with, infecting more than 200 million people worldwide. Developing countries in Africa and Asia struggle tremendously, especially without access to clean water, or the inability to receive necessary treatment. Though the probability of completely eradicating the disease within the near future is low, thankfully the number of infected is generally decreasing. As immense efforts are being made globally, better access to medication, as well as sanitary environments are readily being provided. Additionally, extensive amounts of research are helping find out more about schistosoma to better our treatments and potentially develop a vaccine. # Conclusions Overall, while parasitic infections are fortunately majority of the time treatable, there is so much more to them than what one might think. In this article we were able to cover plentiful information about parasites, their evolutionary history, and the terrifying reality of Schistosomiasis, so with this knowledge, it is time to make a real impact. Below, there is a link to a GoFundMe page, where you can help Recy Abellanosa, a mother, wife, and teacher who is struggling with the effects of schistosomiasis. By donating, you will be able to take some of the financial burden off her family as she fights the disease. As a final remark, I highly encourage you to learn more about these organisms, as well as keep yourself and others around you educated in the current scientific and medical world. # Link to GoFundMe: [https://www.gofundme.com/f/support-recys-urgent-medical-needs](https://www.gofundme.com/f/support-recys-urgent-medical-needs?ref=youthstemline.com) --- # References ###### Baker, J. R. (1994). The origins of parasitism in the protists. International Journal for Parasitology, 24(8), 1131–1137\. [https://doi.org/10.1016/0020-7519(94)90187-2](https://doi.org/10.1016/0020-7519%2894%2990187-2?ref=youthstemline.com)Luong, L. T., & Mathot, K. J. (2019). Facultative parasites as evolutionary stepping-stones towards parasitic lifestyles. Biology Letters, 15(4), 20190058\. [https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2019.0058](https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2019.0058?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2019). CDC - DPDx - Schistosomiasis Infection. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; CDC. [https://www.cdc.gov/dpdx/schistosomiasis/index.html](https://www.cdc.gov/dpdx/schistosomiasis/index.html?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Cleveland Clinic. (2023, April 14). Parasites. Cleveland Clinic. [https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/24911-parasites](https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/24911-parasites?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Gobbi, F., Tamarozzi, F., Buonfrate, D., van Lieshout, L., Bisoffi, Z., & Bottieau, E. (2020). New Insights on Acute and Chronic Schistosomiasis: Do We Need a Redefinition? Trends in Parasitology, 36(8), 660–667\. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2020.05.009](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2020.05.009?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### ‌Image:Life Cycle of Schistosoma. (n.d.). Merck Manual Consumer Version. [https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/multimedia/image/life-cycle-of-schistosoma](https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/multimedia/image/life-cycle-of-schistosoma?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Janouskovec, J., & Keeling, P. J. (2016). Evolution: Causality and the Origin of Parasitism. Current Biology, 26(4), R174–R177\. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.12.057](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.12.057?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Kochin, B. F., Bull, J. J., & Antia, R. (2010). Parasite evolution and life history theory. PLoS biology, 8(10), e1000524\. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1000524](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1000524?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Pion, S. D. S., Chesnais, C. B., Bopda, J., Louya, F., Fischer, P. U., Majewski, A. C., Weil, G. J., Boussinesq, M., & Missamou, F. (2015). The impact of two semiannual treatments with albendazole alone on lymphatic filariasis and soil-transmitted helminth infections: a community-based study in the Republic of Congo. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 92(5), 959–966\. [https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.14-0661](https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.14-0661?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Schistosomiasis. (n.d.). Www.who.int. [https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/topics/schistosomiasis](https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/topics/schistosomiasis?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Tiwari, R., Gupta, R. P., Singh, V. K., Kumar, A., None Rajneesh, Prasoon Madhukar, Sundar, S., Gautam, V., & Kumar, R. (2023). Nanotechnology-Based Strategies in Parasitic Disease Management: From Prevention to Diagnosis and Treatment. ACS Omega, 8(45), 42014–42027\. [https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.3c04587](https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.3c04587?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### WHO. (2024, December 11). Malaria. World Health Organization. [https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/malaria](https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/malaria?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### World Health Organization. (2023, February 1). Schistosomiasis. Who.int; World Health Organization: WHO. [https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/schistosomiasis](https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/schistosomiasis?ref=youthstemline.com) --- ### The Genetic Ticking Time Bomb URL: https://youthstemline.com/huntingtons-disease/ Last updated: 2026-06-13T00:10:23.000Z By Camila Garcia \~ 9 minutes --- ##### Please see glossary for defined terms. Huntington's Disease, discovered by George Huntington in 1872, is a hereditary genetic brain disorder. Since then, many researchers have dedicated their lives to studying Huntington's Disease. While we have not found a cure nor treatments to slow the progression, we have discovered how it works, what it is, what it can do, and how it is passed down. George Huntington, an American physician from Long Island with a degree from Columbia University, published his paper “On Chorea” in 1872, describing Huntington's Disease so accurately and succinctly that the disease was named after him. He was only 21 when his paper was published. However, he first encountered what would come to be known as Huntington's Disease when he was 8 years old while accompanying his father and grandfather on medical rounds. Within “On Chorea”, he summarized three key characteristics of a person with Huntington's Disease: their propensity to suicide and mental disorders, inheritance patterns, and progressive disabilities. This was his sole contribution to medical research. His paper shone a light on this “medical curiosity” from a new field of medicine and shook the medical research world into a frenzy to try to grasp what Huntington's was and how it worked. Huntington's Disease (HD), is inherited from your parents following an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern. It causes nerve cells, mainly in the basal ganglia, brain cortex, and the striatum, to gradually break down and lose function. More than 15,000 Americans currently have HD, but many more are at risk of developing it. There are two kinds of Huntington’s Disease, adult onset, the most common, and early onset, which affects children and teenagers. Fortunately, early onset is very rare, only affecting 5.7% of Huntington’s cases. HD affects an estimated 3 to 7 people out of 100,000, most commonly people of European descent. If a parent has HD, their child has a 50% chance of inheriting the genetic mutation as well. If the child does not inherit it, they will not show symptoms and cannot pass it down. On the condition that the patient has more than 50 CAG repeats, there is a 90% chance they inherited the gene from their father, because CAG repeats tend to be more unstable when passed from the male. There are situations where HD occurs without family history. This event is called Sporadic HD. Huntington's is a genetic mutation of the HTT gene. It produces a protein called huntingtin. This protein helps your nerves function. The HTT gene is found on chromosome 4, which also happens to be associated with the cause of many other genetic disorders and some types of cancer. The defect involves a DNA segment known as CAG trinucleotide repeat. It is made up of three DNA building blocks, cytosine, adenine, and guanine, appearing several times in a row. Normally, the CAG segments are repeated 10 to 35 times within a gene, and these people lie in the unaffected range, whether normal or intermediate allele sub-ranges. To a person with Huntington's, it can be repeated 36 to more than 120 times. They lie in the affected range, either reduced penetrance or full penetrance if they have more than 40 CAG repeats. People in the intermediate allele and the reduced penetrance sub-ranges, with 27-39 CAG repeats, may not develop symptoms but can be carriers. The increase in repeats leads to the production of abnormally long and oddly shaped huntingtin proteins. The elongated protein forms toxic fragments that fuse together and collect in neurons, disrupting the normal function of cells and ultimately killing them. This causes the symptoms of Huntington's Disease. As the mutated HTT gene is passed down, the amount of CAG trinucleotide repeats increases. A larger number of repeats causes early onset Huntington's and a sooner appearance of symptoms. This is referred to as anticipation. The diverse symptoms of Huntington's Disease are what leads to many misdiagnoses in the early stages and why it took so long to be recognized as its own disease. George Huntington's paper “On Chorea” focused mostly on chorea, which involves involuntary jerking or writhing movements, akinesia developing as the disease progresses, unusual or slow eye movements, trouble with walking and balance, dystonia, ataxia, trouble with speech, athetosis, and dysphagia, and weight loss. Mental health conditions include irritability, mood swings, social withdrawal, insomnia, fatigue, loss of energy, suicidal thoughts, OCD, mania, bipolar disorder, psychosis, hallucinations, and paranoia. There are cognitive conditions as well, like, trouble organizing, trouble prioritizing and focusing on tasks, lack of flexibility and perseveration, lack of impulse control that can lead to violent outbursts, lack of awareness in one selves behaviors and ability, slowness in processing thoughts, seizures, trouble with driving, and trouble learning new information and memorization. These symptoms can get more intense when the person is nervous or distracted. Eventually, these symptoms get so bad that it is more closely categorized as dementia. Many people with HD remain conscious of their environment and can express emotions. As it progresses, the patient will need more help and supervision. Ultimately, they will need help at all hours of the day. HD is not fatal in and of itself. Patients most commonly die from complications like physical injury from falls and accidents, malnutrition due to trouble feeding oneself, infections, typically pneumonia but others as well, choking, heart failure, seizures, and, due to the mental toll, 7-10% of HD patients commit suicide. The average lifespan of a person with Huntington's is 10 to 30 years after a diagnosis. This disease, because of its diverse symptoms, takes a skilled eye to diagnose. In most cases, it can be done with a neurological exam and an analysis of the patient’s medical and family history. But in other cases, the patient might require genetic and blood tests and diagnostic imaging like an MRI, CT, PET scan, or EEG. A neurologist and neuropsychiatrist will perform these tests. There are many research studies underway to study Huntington's and while we do not have a cure, we have a basic understanding of the disease, which means we are one step closer to long term treatments. Johns Hopkins, for example, has 4 ongoing studies: the Sage Studies: PERSPECTIVE Program, which is evaluating the safety and efficiency of the experimental drug SAGE-718 in adults with early Huntington's Disease, the Generation HD2 tests, which is the second phase of tests on Tominersen in young adults with HD ranging from 25-50 years old. The HDClarity study, an observational study to collect cerebrospinal fluid in order to study biomarkers that influence HD’s pathophysiology and growth, and the Enroll-HD program, a registry for the Global Huntington Disease Cohort, providing vast information for future clinical research. These are just a few of the many programs dedicated to unlocking the mysteries of HD. The most promising fields are those studying biomarkers, like the HDClarity study, and stem cell research. There are many options for treatments that can help improve the quality of life for a person with HD. They will require more help as the disease progresses and a team of people to help them like a neurologist, psychiatrist, genetic counselor, physical therapist, occupational therapist, and a speech therapist. A counselor could also help the patient and their family members with the emotional toll. Medications can also be prescribed to ease symptoms and keep them functioning as long as possible. To treat chorea they could take deutetrabenazine, amantadine, tetrabenazine, or haloperidol. The latter two of which could also help deter hallucinations and delusions. To manage their emotions, they could be prescribed antidepressants like fluoxetine and sertraline, antipsychotic drugs like risperidone and olanzapine; however, some antipsychotic medications have side effects that could make chorea and akinesia worse, and mood stabilizing medications like lithium. Antidepressant and antianxiety medications are also commonly prescribed because there are high rates of depression and suicide amongst patients with HD. It is also recommended to maintain physical fitness because it is shown that patients who exercise regularly delay the symptoms of HD more than those who do not. Huntington's, however, can be prevented by genetic counseling, prenatal testing, and in vitro fertilization, where an egg and sperm are fertilized in a lab and checked to see if it has Huntington’s disease. If it does not, it is then implanted back into the uterus. It is important to speak to a genetic counselor before having a child if you or your partner has HD or is at risk to develop symptoms. An HD diagnosis is certainly not a death sentence. A person with Huntington's can live a long, happy life. We now know so much about this disease that even George Huntington would not be able to believe. There are many options for every particular patient and every particular case. And as science and technology advances, so will we in our path to finding a cure for Huntington's Disease. --- ## Glossary 1\. A CAG trinucleotide repeat is an unstable expansion of the DNA sequence "cytosine-adenine-guanine" (CAG) that codes for the amino acid glutamine, resulting in a long "polyglutamine" tract within a protein 2\. a situation where individuals who inherit a disease-causing genetic mutation do not develop the associated disease or condition 3\. Akinesia: become rigid (stiff) and move very little or not at all 4\. Dystonia: unusual fixed (unchanging) postures 5\. Ataxia: loss of coordination 6\. Athetosis: slow, involuntary, and writhing movements 7\. Dysphagia: difficulty swallowing 8\. Psychosis: losing some contact with reality 9\. Tominersen: a treatment for Huntington’s Disease that is under research and trials --- # References U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2024, December 12). *Huntington’s disease*. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. [https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/disorders/huntingtons-disease](https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/disorders/huntingtons-disease?ref=youthstemline.com) Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. (2024, April 25). *Huntington’s disease*. Mayo Clinic. [https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/huntingtons-disease/symptoms-causes/syc-20356117](https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/huntingtons-disease/symptoms-causes/syc-20356117?ref=youthstemline.com) *Huntington’s disease: What is it?* Cleveland Clinic. (2024, May 1). [https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/14369-huntingtons-disease](https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/14369-huntingtons-disease?ref=youthstemline.com) *Huntington’s disease*. Johns Hopkins Medicine. (2024, June 6). [https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/huntingtons-disease](https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/huntingtons-disease?ref=youthstemline.com) U.S. National Library of Medicine. (2020, July 1). *Huntington’s disease: Medlineplus genetics*. MedlinePlus. [https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/huntingtons-disease/](https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/huntingtons-disease/?ref=youthstemline.com) *Huntington’s disease*. ucsfhealth.org. (n.d.). [https://www.ucsfhealth.org/conditions/huntingtons-disease](https://www.ucsfhealth.org/conditions/huntingtons-disease?ref=youthstemline.com) *Huntington’s disease - symptoms, causes, treatment: Nord*. National Organization for Rare Disorders. (2023, November 20). [https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/huntingtons-disease/](https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/huntingtons-disease/?ref=youthstemline.com) *What is Huntington’s disease?* Huntington’s Disease Association - Home. (n.d.). [https://www.hda.org.uk/information-and-support/huntingtons-disease/what-is-huntingtons-disease/](https://www.hda.org.uk/information-and-support/huntingtons-disease/what-is-huntingtons-disease/?ref=youthstemline.com) *Huntington’s Disease Society of America*. Huntington’s Disease Society of America - Family Is Everything. (n.d.). [https://hdsa.org/](https://hdsa.org/?ref=youthstemline.com) Durbach, N., & Hayden, M. R. (1993, May). *George Huntington: The man behind the eponym*. Journal of medical genetics. [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1016378/#:\~:text=Abstract,was%20later%20named%20after%20him](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1016378/?ref=youthstemline.com#:~:text=Abstract,was%20later%20named%20after%20him) Squitieri, F. (2013). *Numero verde huntington*. LIRH. [https://lirh.it/en/history-huntingtons-disease#:\~:text=George%20Huntington%20](https://lirh.it/en/history-huntingtons-disease?ref=youthstemline.com#:~:text=George%20Huntington%20) *History of Huntington’s Disease - Huntington's Disease Society of America*. Huntington’s Disease Society of America - Family Is Everything. (2019, March 20). [https://hdsa.org/what-is-hd/history-and-genetics-of-huntingtons-disease/history-of-huntingtons-disease/](https://hdsa.org/what-is-hd/history-and-genetics-of-huntingtons-disease/history-of-huntingtons-disease/?ref=youthstemline.com) --- ### My Experience Shadowing an Oncologist URL: https://youthstemline.com/my-experience-shadowing-an-oncologist/ Last updated: 2026-06-13T00:17:11.000Z By Aravli Paliwal \~ 9 minutes --- Earlier this summer, I was graciously given the opportunity to shadow a private-practice oncologist/hematologist in the Dallas area. There, I gained a clear understanding of what a career in STEM entails, learned how doctors approach complex cancer cases, and secured an inside view into the emotionally taxing yet deeply rewarding work of an oncologist. # What does an Oncologist’s career look like? At the ground level, an oncologist’s job involves diagnosing and treating cancer. They play a central role in administering cancer treatments and developing long-term plans. There are three main types of oncologists: - Medical Oncologist: Dr. Nair, whom I shadowed, practices as a medical oncologist. These doctors use targeted therapies like chemotherapy and immunotherapy to treat cancers. - Surgical Oncologist: Surgical oncologists perform biopsies and remove tumors through surgical procedures. Usually, after a medical oncologist has successfully shrunk a tumor through targeted therapy, a surgical oncologist will excavate the remaining piece. - Radiation Oncologist: As the name suggests, these doctors treat cancer through radiation therapy. Dr. Nair works as a hematologist-oncologist. Because cancer often involves blood and bone marrow (leukemia, lymphoma, myeloma), having training in both oncology (solid tumors) and hematology (blood disorders) allows a doctor to treat a wider variety of patients without having to refer them to another clinic. Also, in the U.S., most oncologists need no extra schooling to end up board-certified in both. Typically, becoming an oncologist requires about 14-16 years of school. This includes a four-year undergraduate program, where students generally major in biology, chemistry, mathematics, or physics. Then, students take the MCAT, or the *Medical College Admission Test*, and attend medical school to earn their MD. After four years of medical school, doctors attend a three-year residency program. Finally, they complete a three-year fellowship program, subspecializing in oncology or hematology-oncology. Oncologists typically finish schooling in their mid-thirties, and though they spend most of their twenties in schooling, many agree that this time is fully necessary due to the extensive information students have to understand. A central part of an oncologist’s job is responding to a wide spectrum of questions, ranging from emotional ones like “if the tumor is getting bigger, do I have less time to live?” to straightforward questions like, “if I eat and sleep more, will I have more energy the next morning?" Sure, many of these questions become routine over time, but it’s that rare, complex one that truly tests a doctor’s knowledge and, when answered well, builds even more trust between the patient and their provider. Because cancer is such a serious topic, patients seek oncologists who make them comfortable, and the best way to provide that security is by easing their uncertainties and reinforcing confidence in their provider. This is exactly why those 14 long years of medical training matter so much. # The Difference Between Private Practice and Clinic Dr. Nair is affiliated with the broader group Texas Oncology and practices at Medical City Dallas, but before going in to shadow her, I had no idea what the difference between a private practice and a clinic was. Here is an easy way to break it down: - Private practice: When a doctor or group of doctors owns, manages, and runs their own medical office. Like a business, they hire staff, manage billing, and run their own practice from top to bottom. Though private practice intersects the two contrasting fields of medicine and business, these doctors have more flexibility when not working for a large hospital or healthcare system. - Clinic: Usually affiliated with a larger group, hospital, or university. Doctors who work as part of a clinic follow the protocol set up by a broader employer and focus less on business and management. # Highlight Patients You may think that looking at cancer gets repetitive after a while, and maybe you’re right- but in the two weeks that I shadowed Dr. Nair, we saw a wide variety of patients that kept me quite interested. Often, it wasn’t the cancer or condition that made them memorable, but their personality, and the reminder that cancer does not discriminate. People from all walks of life, rich or poor, tall or short, male or female, can be struck by the disease at random and affected in similar ways. ## 1\. Female, mid-40s, obese This patient was on blood-thinners that were administered by the hospital. Upon arriving home, she purposefully took double the prescribed dose for a few days. With the alarmingly high dosage this patient was taking, her gums would bleed when brushing her teeth, and minor cuts would bleed profusely without stopping. Suddenly, the patient formed a massive internal hemorrhage in her stomach, and was rushed to the ICU where she took a break from blood thinners and recuperated. ## 2\. Female, mid-30s This patient was aware she had a tumor in her lungs, but didn’t know the extent of its spread or whether it was even malignant. As the cardiothoracic surgeon opened her chest to perform a biopsy and assess the situation, he found that the cancer presented as stage 4 and had spread extensively throughout the lungs. After removing substantial diseased lung tissue, the patient's remaining lung capacity was too low to sustain oxygenation. Therefore, she was placed on a ventilator that essentially acted as a pair of bedside lungs, pumping air for her. ## 3\. Female, early-60s, groaning in pain As Dr. Nair and I walked into the patient’s room, she was lying on the bed, groaning and screaming in severe pain. This woman had a pancreatic tumor, one of the most painful types of cancer, due to the tumor pressing on bunches of nerves and organs in the abdomen and back. Though she was fully lucid, the pain was preventing her from formulating complete thoughts or ideas, and her husband described that she could not eat properly or move around without a wheelchair. Dr. Nair told the couple to visit the ER within the hospital immediately, so that the patient could be administered stronger pain medications. # The role of women in healthcare One thing that really stuck out to me was the number of women who worked in the office with Dr.Nair. Out of the three oncologists, only one was a man, and the rest of the staff, including the P.A. and infusion nurses, were all women. In fact, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics; around 77.6% of all healthcare workers are women. However, we hold a disproportionately small number of leadership positions compared to men. Where 77.6% of healthcare workers are women, only about 38% of all physicians are women. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-3-w-931.png) Male and Female Doctors Statistics 2025 By Disparities, Trajectories and Professions / Market.us Media © Despite the gender gap that still exists today, equality growth in the last 20 years alone has been monumental. According to the Association of American Medical Colleges, > “From 2004 to 2022, the number of women in the active physician workforce increased 97%.” Going forward, the future looks bright too. In 2019, women for the first time accounted for a majority (50.5%) of students enrolled in medical school in the United States. Today, women account for about 54.6% of medical school students. As women make up the majority of medical school graduates, the number of physicians in the coming years will consequently increase. # Conclusion Before I arrived at the oncologist’s office, I pictured a gloomy waiting room filled with silent, dejected patients. Instead, I discovered something completely different. People tend to imagine only the sickest patients at a cancer clinic, the ones who are dying. But they often forget about the many who are improving, on the uphill climb, and who see the doctor’s office not as a place of punishment or despair, but as a lifeline that offers hope and light at the end of the tunnel. Seeing this side of cancer care reshaped my view of healthcare entirely. It made me realize that medicine isn’t just about treating disease and sending patients on their way, but instead creating an environment where people are given a reason to keep fighting. --- # References ###### AMA Writers. (2023, October 25). What is private practice-and is it right for you?. American Medical Association. https://www.ama-assn.org/practice-management/private-practices/what-private-practice-and-it-right-you ###### Deb, T. (2025, January 13). Male and female doctors statistics and facts (2025). Market.us Media. https://media.market.us/male-and-female-doctors-statistics/ ###### U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (n.d.). Over 16 million women worked in health care and social assistance in 2021\. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. https://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2022/over-16-million-women-worked-in-health-care-and-social-assistance-in-2021.html --- ### The Fall of the Big, Bad Boiler: The Latest Climate Technology Infiltrating New York City URL: https://youthstemline.com/the-fall-of-the-big-bad-boiler-the-latest-climate-technology-infiltrating-new-york-city/ Last updated: 2026-06-13T00:17:45.000Z By Montserrat Tang \~ 9 minutes --- # The Hot Hell of Boilers As someone born and raised in New York City (NYC), I can attest to the urgent need to upgrade the city's climate control infrastructure. Current systems are outdated and hinder the city's ability to meet emissions goals and address global warming; the encapsulation of this problem is the boiler. A staggering 72.9% of heating in NYC comes from fossil-fuel-burning steam boilers, one of the most carbon-intensive options available. Tenants of apartments pay for the maintenance of centralized boilers without control over the temperature, leading many to open their windows in winter to release excessive warmth. This heat and the fossil fuels used to produce it are wasted, highlighting the inefficiency and impracticality of NYC's existing infrastructure. ![](https://heatingny.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/60KnollsCrescentSt-Before-sm.jpg) Industrial boiler room / Controlled Combustion © Even when this heat remains indoors, steam boilers are only about 80-85% efficient at burning fossil fuels. Up to a fifth of a boiler's fuel does not generate usable heat, but burning it still releases vast quantities of pollutants like CO2, exacerbating climate change. Furthermore, boilers continue to lose efficiency during their lifetimes and require frequent maintenance and replacement. While steam boiler systems were revolutionary in the 19th century, they may now become obsolete as NYC implements a technology that could change how the world thinks about climate control. # The Cool(ing) Mechanics of Heat Pumps ![](https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/styles/full_article_width/public/2021-11/shutterstock_622693838%20%5BConverted%5D.jpg?itok=ZJAFO7pW) Mechanics of an air source heat pump / U.S. Department of Energy © The innovation behind heat pumps comes from the mantra of *use what is given*; instead of generating heat through combustion, they simply move existing warmth between two places. Most of these fully-electric pumps remain functional well below 0℃, even though it may seem like there is no warmth to be moved. This operative capacity allows them to have heating efficiencies of 300-500%! Because of this, International Energy Agency partner Yannick Monschauer estimates that "Heat pumps could bring down global CO2 emissions by half a gigaton by the end of this decade." Heat pumps work by operating on the Second Law of Thermodynamics (SLOT), which states that heat will move from a hotter object to a colder one. In the wintertime, the pumps pull in outdoor air and blow it over fluids (called refrigerants) held in a closed-loop system. The air transfers warmth to the cold refrigerants through SLOT, and the heated fluids turn into gas. Heat pumps can work in freezing temperatures because these refrigerants have such unusually low boiling points, allowing them to vaporize easily; one of them, Refrigerant 12, has a boiling point of just -21.64°F! The hot, gaseous refrigerants move into a compressor that compacts their molecules, making them even warmer. They then flow through a coil that exposes them to indoor air, and the refrigerants release their warmth inside through SLOT. As the refrigerants cool, they condense back into liquid and pass through an expansion valve, decreasing their temperature further. They move to an outdoor coil and are ready to restart the process, continuing to warm cold homes during the winter. Even more significantly, heat pumps have reversing valves that switch the flow of their refrigerants. These valves allow the pumps to cool homes by pushing out warm, indoor air in the summertime. Thus, heat pumps make air conditioners, boilers, radiators, and related piping unnecessary, freeing space and alleviating material and labour costs that typically get passed on to homeowners. # Heat pumps in NYC In 2024, NYC pledged to have heat pumps provide 65% of residential heating, air conditioning, and water-heating needs by 2030\. This shift would drastically reduce the city's carbon emissions from the climate control sector, which contributed to 10% of global energy-related CO2 emissions in 2021. This pledge is logical both environmentally and practically: having one heat pump replace two systems saves valuable space, lowers costly installation and maintenance fees, and reduces energy demands. The NYC government realized this potential and signed a $70,000,000 contract to install 30,000 window heat pumps in NYCHA buildings, better known as public housing. Two heating companies, Midea and Gradient, will provide these units. In late 2023, Gradient installed 36 preliminary test units in NYCHA buildings. Most NYC steam boilers, including those in NYCHA's current system, are powered by gas with oil reserves in case of an emergency. Gradient found that their pump can lower tenants' heating bills by 29-62% on moderate winter days compared to gas-powered boilers. Savings are as high as 59-78% compared to oil-burning boilers. In testimonials that Gradient collected, NYCHA tenants noted the heat pumps' impressive air filtration, heating, and operational capabilities. Midea conducted similar tests and soon plans to release its heat pump for public purchase. # The Cold Drawbacks of Heat Pumps Although technological faults remain, NYC is continuing its plans to install and promote heat pumps to replace its intensive, outdated systems. For one, Midea's upcoming pump will cost \~$3,000 per unit, greatly exceeding the combined price of \~$460 for their bestselling, single-room heating and cooling systems. This is a misleading comparison, however, because heat pumps also act as heating systems. The technology can lower electricity and fuel bills over an extended period, but the current price point makes heat pumps an unaffordable investment for many households – despite government subsidies and incentives. Even the NYC government's bulk order of Midea and Gradient pumps averages over $2,300 per unit. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/unnamed2-w-512.png) Furthering the inaccessibility of these systems, the most advanced, aesthetically pleasing, and apartment-friendly heat pumps can only heat and cool individual rooms. This means that multiple units must be purchased, installed, and powered to service a home, and each must be replaced about every 20 years. Still, NYC's firm stance on heat pumps indicates the climate control systems' proven efficacy, practicality, and sustainability. # Heat Pumps Globally, and Plans for the Future While technological challenges remain, NYC is continuing to deliver on its pledges. This decision on heat pumps is being made throughout the United States (US). In 2022, heat pump sales in the US significantly outpaced those of gas furnaces (a type of central heating system particularly popular in North America). This lead has continued into 2025 as more people realize that the pumps can lower fossil fuel emissions and energy bills. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/heat-pump-sales-in-u-s--surged-past-gas-furnaces-in-2022-w-1024.png) This switch is not just happening in the US; countries worldwide are beginning – or continuing – to invest in these pumps. Sales in European countries have soared in the 21st-century, an accomplishment partly attributed to friendly government policy. The country with the most pumps relative to its population, Norway, has 632 heat pumps installed for every 1,000 households (the majority of these pumps service entire houses, unlike the Midea and Gradient systems discussed above). Despite this high ownership rate, 48 pumps were purchased in Norway for every 1,000 households in 2024. ![](https://www.pv-magazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/csm_Graph_hp_sales_in_2021_51a98f4287.png) 1990-2021 Heat pump sales in Europe, by technology / European Heat Pump Association © In spite of these promising statistics, heat pump sales in most economies have either slowed or slumped in recent years – particularly in Europe. Analysts suspect this is due to high interest rates, rising electricity prices, low consumer confidence, and low gas prices. While this is discouraging, pump sales and ownership rates remain higher than they were several years ago. In 2023, New York Governor Kathy Hochul pledged to help the U.S. Climate Alliance (USCA) install 20,000,000 pumps across the U.S. The USCA is a coalition of 24 governors representing 54% of the United States population and 57% of its economy. The bipartisan group has successfully delivered on their promises of emissions reduction, climate resilience, economic growth, energy savings, and zero-carbon electricity standards that heat pumps are engineered to meet. This coalition has proved that environmental action is popular, necessary, and possible. At a time when climate policy is under question, sustainable and feasible technologies – like heat pumps – need the investment of citizens, industries, and governments alike; no matter how small the scale. So, how can you help? Since 2022, the US government has given a federal tax credit to citizens who install efficient heat pumps. The Energy Efficient Home Improvement Credit provides eligible homeowners up to $2,000 annually. Combined with other energy-efficient credits, US citizens can regain up to $3,200 every year. These monetary incentives offer another reason to consider switching to heat pumps, and similar policies are being enacted worldwide. I am proud to live in a city that rewards and encourages the sustainability of citizens, corporations, and public works. As the severity and irreversibility of global warming loom, heat pumps offer us a breezy solution to polluting climate control systems. Eventually, NYC’s infamous boiler rooms and clanging pipes may become relics of the past. --- # References ###### About Us. (n.d.). United States Climate Alliance. https://usclimatealliance.org/ ###### Azau, S. (2025, July 3). Heat pump sales 14 times greater in lead countries. European Heat Pump Association. https://www.ehpa.org/news-and-resources/press-releases/heat-pump-sales-14-times-greater-in-lead-countries/ ###### Bray, T. (2021, October 7). How Do Heat Pumps Work? | Heat Pumps Explained. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iQaycSD5GWE ###### DeJong, K. (n.d.). The Difference Between Heat Pumps and Air Conditioners - Comparing Heat Pump Mini Splits with Cooling Only Systems. eComfort. Retrieved July 31, 2025, from https://www.ecomfort.com/stories/1310-Comparing-Heat-Pump-Mini-Splits-with-Cooling-Only-Systems.html ###### Demir, H., Ulku, S., & Mobedi, M. (2013, August). A review on adsorption heat pump: Problems and solutions. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223303816\_A\_review\_on\_adsorption\_heat\_pump\_Problems\_and\_solutions ###### Ferrell, M. (2024, May 28). How does an air conditioner actually work? - Anna Rothschild. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6sSDXurPX-s ###### Ferrell, M., & Natividad, S. (2024, June 11). Why This Window Heat Pump Is Genius. Undecided. https://undecidedmf.com/why-this-window-heat-pump-is-genius/ ###### Gradient Transforms Public Housing HVAC at NYCHA. (2024, June 3). Gradient. https://www.gradientcomfort.com/blogs/news/how-gradient-is-transforming-public-housing-with-innovative-window-heat-pumps ###### Heat pump. (2025, July 31). Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat\_pump ###### Midea Packaged Window Heat Pump. (n.d.). Midea HVAC. Retrieved July 31, 2025, from https://www.mideacomfort.us/packaged.html ###### New York City Climate Dashboard: Energy. (2024). NYC Comptroller. https://comptroller.nyc.gov/services/for-the-public/nyc-climate-dashboard/energy/ ###### New York State. (n.d.). Efficient and Emission-Free, Heat Pumps Are Gaining Popularity in New York and Beyond. New York State Energy Research and Development Authority. https://www.nyserda.ny.gov/Featured-Stories/US-Heat-Pump-Sales ###### New York State. (2023). Recapping Climate Week 2023\. New York State Energy Research and Development Authority. https://www.nyserda.ny.gov/Featured-Stories/Recapping-Climate-Week-2023 ###### New York State. (2023, September 20). Governor Hochul Announces Installation of Window Heat Pumps for New York City Public Housing Residents. Governor Kathy Hochul. https://www.governor.ny.gov/news/governor-hochul-announces-installation-window-heat-pumps-new-york-city-public-housing ###### New York State & ENERGY STAR. (2024). 2024 ENERGY STAR Products Partner Meeting. New York State Energy Research and Development Authority. https://cdn.shopify.com/s/files/1/0558/4925/5070/files/NYSERDA\_Room\_Heat\_Pump\_Presentation\_from\_2024\_ENERGY\_STAR\_Product\_Partners\_Meeting.pdf?v=1736361913United States Government. (2025, May 29). Energy Efficient Home Improvement Credit | Internal Revenue Service. IRS. https://www.irs.gov/credits-deductions/energy-efficient-home-improvement-credit --- ### Bringing Back the Dead: De-Extinction URL: https://youthstemline.com/de-extinction-a-review-of-the-pros-and-cons/ Last updated: 2026-06-13T00:18:06.000Z By Stella Fish \~ 4 minutes --- Have you ever wondered what life would be like if it were possible to revive extinct animals? To see a woolly mammoth, or a dodo bird? Thanks to a new modern-day technology, these doors are being opened. A dire wolf is a species of canine that went extinct about 13,000 years ago, differing from the modern gray wolf in its larger body, more massive skull, and smaller brain. In 2021, a company called Colossus Biosciences was able to extract dire wolf DNA from ancient fossils. Using this DNA to find the specific dire wolf genes, the scientists made 20 edits to a gray wolf gene, the closest living relative, until they produced an animal with the same key features as a dire wolf. After creating embryos from these genes, they implanted them into surrogate canine mothers. ![](https://static01.nyt.com/images/2025/04/08/multimedia/08HS-DIREWOLF-03-wgjm/08HS-DIREWOLF-03-wgjm-superJumbo.jpg?quality=75&auto=webp) Romulus and Remus, wolf pups with dire wolf genes / Colossal Biosciences © Soon after this, three healthy baby wolves were born, carrying the key traits of dire wolves. These three wolves are now known as the first successful use of de-extinction, sparking much debate over whether this practice should be continued. # The Pros of De-extinction: De-extinction is a powerful tool for animal conservation and ecosystem restoration. Bringing back extinct keystone species could restore degraded habitats that have withered without them, opening doors to revive grasslands and other ecosystems. Along with ecosystem restoration, keystone species could impact the climate and weather in their habitat by impacting carbon storage and moisture regulation. This technology could also target endangered species, allowing scientists to save and protect animals at risk. By altering extinct genes to restore genetic diversity in a threatened species, scientists could avoid the extinction of important keystone species, keeping the ecosystem's equilibrium steady. Along with these two pros, de-extinction has led to significant scientific breakthroughs, specifically in biology and genetics. If it continues to be explored, it de-extinction could lead to other discoveries and raise awareness around the importance of protecting species and biodiversity. # Cons of De-Extinction: Yet, this useful new technology also harbors many risks. Dr. Meachen, a vertebrate paleontologist and morphologist, stated that she is wary of this new process, saying, > “I have questions. We have trouble with the wolves we have today.” ![](https://media.licdn.com/dms/image/v2/D5610AQHw3ifvRpRV0w/image-shrink_800/B56ZjH3J9aHQAg-/0/1755699781929?e=2147483647&v=beta&t=75GnZxw3RFeVUlQUttrnpQ7fLRBUICUddA2DeSA3s-o) Dr. Meachen / Des Moines University © The de-extinction process is costly and requires funds that the private sector may not be able to provide, meaning governments may have to assume funding. In this case, resources used in this process would come from the government's conservation budget, making present conservation efforts lose funding. This would mean that existing endangered species facing immediate threats would be at risk, resulting in biodiversity loss. Placing extinct animals back into their environments might also have drawbacks, as most extinct animals' ecosystems have changed since they became extinct, and there is no guarantee that they will be able to adapt back. This could lead to potentially invasive species, as their habitats may lack natural predators to keep the revived population in check. Reintroducing a species might also create conflict within the ecosystem, impacting the stability and equilibrium. Finally, many ethical questions come with de-extinction. By providing a way to return past life to the planet, there may be consequences of falsely condoning extinction and pardoning harm to species. Many critics also believe it is not our responsibility to “play God” and create new life. # In Conclusion: De-extinction has provided substantial progress in science and has opened doors to new ways to conserve animals and habitats. However, many disadvantages come with it, posing the question: should de-extinction be further used, and if so, should there be limitations to what scientists can and can’t do with the genetic engineering of extinct animals? --- # References ###### Dire Wolf Digital. (2024). Dire Wolf Digital, Inc. Direwolfdigital.com. https://www.direwolfdigital.com/ ###### Direwolf Biology - Colossal. (2025, April 7). Colossal. https://colossal.com/direwolf/biology/ ###### Jarvis, B. (2025, May 7). There’s No “Undo” Button for Extinct Species. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2025/05/07/magazine/extinct-species-dire-wolf.html ###### Kluger, J. (2025, April 7). The Return of the Dire Wolf. Time. https://time.com/7274542/colossal-dire-wolf/ ###### Zimmer, C. (2025, April 7). Scientists Revive the Dire Wolf, or Something Close. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2025/04/07/science/colossal-dire-wolf-deextinction.html --- ### the entire history of spacetime, i guess (part 3) URL: https://youthstemline.com/the-entire-history-of-spacetime-i-guess-part-3/ Last updated: 2026-06-13T00:23:37.000Z By Aashritha Shankar \~ 11 minutes --- While the concepts of space and time were fundamental to the Newtonian world, centuries of digging deeper into the mechanics of our universe have uncovered that it isn’t all as simple as it seems. From Einstein’s Special Relativity to theories of multi-dimensional time, the science behind space and time has evolved into a complex field. # Why Extra Temporal Dimensions? The search for extra spatial dimensions raises questions of the potential for extra temporal dimensions. If space can have more dimensions, why can’t time? The motivations to explore the potential for extra temporal dimensions arise from a desire to better understand the nature of time and the symmetries between them. Another reason to study these extra-temporal dimensions is the desire to unify seemingly disconnected parts of time. Many frameworks for extra temporal dimensions have revealed previously unnoticed symmetries and relationships between different temporal systems that would not be discovered while only working in one dimension. The concept of “complex time” is used to fix some of the problems of quantum mechanics. This idea suggests that time should be represented as a complex value rather than a real number. It would allow more ways to represent wave-particle duality, entanglement, and other fundamental concepts of quantum physics. # 2T-Physics Proposed by physicist Itzhak Bars, 2T-Physics suggests that the one dimension of time we experience is really just a “shadow” of the real two dimensions of time. The core motivation of 2T-Physics is to reveal the deeper temporal connections that we don’t see in our one-dimensional perspective. In 2T-Physics, two seemingly disconnected temporal systems are actually connected and represent different views or ‘shadows’ of the same two-dimensional time. 2T-Physics unifies a wide range of physical systems using "gauge symmetry,” which is the property of a system where a set of transformations, called gauge transformations, can be used on a system without changing any of the physical properties of that system. Bars also illustrated that the Standard Model could be explained by 2T-Physics with four spatial dimensions. Not only can this model predict most of the Standard Model, but it also provides a solution to some quantum issues. An interesting difference between the Standard Model and the predictions of 2T-Physics is the gravitational constant. While it is currently established that the coefficient in gravitational equations is a constant 6.67⋅10\-11, the mathematics of 2T-Physics means that the gravitational constant has different values for different periods of our universe (inflation, grand unification, etc). This allows new possibilities for early expansion of our universe that General Relativity and the Standard Model do not. Through its new perspectives, 2T-Physics allows a more complete framework of gravity, especially at higher dimensions. While 2T-Physics is well-established, it remains highly theoretical and has little to no practical impact. While there is no evidence directly supporting the theory, 2T-Physics predicts certain connections between different physical systems that could potentially be verified through complex experiments, though none have been conducted so far. Above all, 2T-Physics provides a new perspective on time and the nature of the laws of physics that has opened the eyes of many scientists and will likely inspire future discoveries. # 3D Time One of the most recent papers in the field, Kletetschka, proposes a mathematical framework of spacetime that includes temporal dimensions. Kletetschka provides a new perspective on combining gravity and quantum mechanics. Instead of having two hidden dimensions of time, Kletetschka theorizes that each of these dimensions is used to represent time at different scales: the quantum scale, the interaction scale, and the cosmological scale. He explains that the other two dimensions are not visible in our daily life because they occur at very small (quantum) levels or very large (cosmological) levels. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-w-500.png) **Figure 3*, Three-Dimensional Time: A Mathematical Framework for Fundamental Physics, World Scientific Connect © A massive difference between this theory and conventional physics is that while conventional physics considers space to be something vastly different from time, Kletetschka proposes that space is a byproduct of time in each of these dimensions, rather than an entirely separate entity. What we experience as mass or energy actually arises from the curvature of time in these three dimensions. As Kletetschka explored more into this, he discovered surprising consistency in the mathematics, leading to a deeper exploration into the concept. The key to not creating causality issues and instability in the theory was the usage of regular geometry and spatial dimensions instead of exotic situations that are hard to prove or test. This theory aimed to address many of the long-standing issues in quantum mechanics, and its success thus far makes it a prominent theory in the field. The theory is able to add extra temporal dimensions without causing causality issues, something very few theories of its type have been able to grapple with. This is due to its structure. The theory is designed so that the three axes share an ordered flow, preventing an event from happening before its cause. Furthermore, these three axes operate at very different scales, leaving very little overlap between them. The mathematics of the framework does not allow for the alteration of events in the past, something that many other theories allow. The theory is able to offer physical significance and a connection to our world alongside mathematical consistency. Things such as finite quantum corrections, which other theories were not able to predict, were mechanized by this model without creating extra complexity. This mathematical framework is able to predict several properties and new phenomena that can be experimentally tested, allowing pathways to prove or disprove it soon. Meanwhile, many scientists have spoken in support of the theory, considering it a promising candidate for a near “Theory of Everything” just a few months after its publication. # Conclusion While the theoretical motivation for extra dimensions is compelling, the reality of their existence remains unconfirmed. Meanwhile, the scientific community works to experimentally prove or disprove their existence through observational evidence. The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN is one of the major players on the experimental side. They engage in many experiments, a few of which I have highlighted below. 1. Tests for Microscopic Black Holes: Many of the theories that propose extra dimensions lead to increased gravitational power within short distances. This manifests physically as microscopic black holes that would dissipate near instantaneously due to Hawking Radiation. However, the byproduct of this dissipation would be particles detected through the LHC. 2. The Graviton Disappearance: Another common feature of extra-dimensional theories is the manifestation of gravity as a particle called a graviton. That particle would disappear into these extra dimensions, taking energy with it. This would result in an imbalance in the total energy of the system. While experiments have managed to provide more limitations for potential values that would work in certain theories, they have yet to prove or disprove them. Meanwhile, it is important to consider what extra dimensions would mean for us and the way we live. The concept of extra dimensions provides multiple philosophical considerations for us as humans. This concept completely changes our worldview and affects our perception of the universe. Dr. Michio Kaku explains this through the analogy of a fish in a pond, unaware of the world outside its simple reality. Our perception of reality is limited, not only by our understanding of physics, but also by the biology of our brains. The work towards a “Theory of Everything” is not only a physical goal but a philosophical one as well. We strive to understand our universe and everything within it in the simplest way possible. It embodies human desire for ultimate knowledge and drives centuries of physical progress. Overall, the concept of extra dimensions represents one of the most arduous and ambitious goals in human history. While they lack proof, these theories motivate people to search more into the nature of our universe and question the very fabric of our reality. The exploration into further discoveries about our universe truly shows who we are as humans and will continue to motivate centuries of physicists to question the very nature of everything. --- # References ###### 6.2: Relation Between Events- Timelike, Spacelike, or Lightlike. (2022, January 20). Physics LibreTexts. https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Relativity/Spacetime\_Physics\_(Taylor\_and\_Wheeler)/06%3A\_Regions\_of\_Spacetime/6.02%3A\_Relation\_Between\_Events-Timelike\_Spacelike\_or\_Lightlike ###### A quote from Physics of the Impossible. (2025). Goodreads.com. https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/8392801-but-historically-the-fourth-dimension-has-been-considered-a-mere ###### Albert Einstein Quote: “When forced to summarize the general theory of relativity in one sentence: Time and space and gravitation have no separa...” (n.d.). Quotefancy.com. https://quotefancy.com/quote/763238/Albert-Einstein-When-forced-to-summarize-the-general-theory-of-relativity-in-one-sentence ###### Bars, I. (2006). The Standard Model as a 2T-physics Theory. 903(1). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.2735245 ###### Bars, I., & Costas Kounnas. (1997). Theories with two times. Physics Letters B, 402(1-2), 25–32\. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0370-2693(97)00452-8 ###### Bars, I., & Kuo, Y.-C. (2007). Field Theory in Two-Time Physics withN=1Supersymmetry. Physical Review Letters, 99(4). https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevlett.99.041801 ###### Bars, I., & Terning, J. (2010). Extra Dimensions in Space and Time (F. Nekoogar, Ed.). Springer New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-77638-5 ###### Bell, J. (n.d.). Time and Causation in Gödel’s Universe. https://publish.uwo.ca/\~jbell/Time.pdf ###### Beuke, F. (2025). beuke.org. Beuke.org. https://beuke.org/calabi-yau-manifold/ ###### Centre for Theoretical Cosmology: The Origins of the Universe: M-theory. 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The Physics of Moving Backward in Time. ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/closed-timelike-curve-2699127 ###### Hyperspace – A Scientific Odyssey: Official Website of Dr. Michio Kaku. (n.d.). https://mkaku.org/home/articles/hyperspace-a-scientific-odyssey/ ###### Kalligas, D., S, W. P., & Everitt,. (1995). The classical tests in Kaluza-Klein gravity. The Astrophysical Journal, Part 1, 439(2). https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19950044695 ###### Kaluza, Klein and their story of a fifth dimension. (2012, October 10). Plus.maths.org. https://plus.maths.org/content/kaluza-klein-and-their-story-fifth-dimension ###### Kaluza-Klein theories. (n.d.). Retrieved August 10, 2025, from https://indico.cern.ch/event/575526/contributions/2368967/attachments/1430033/2196226/Mondragon\_BeyondSM\_L3.pdf ###### Lee, S. (2025a). Calabi-Yau Manifolds: A Deep Dive. Numberanalytics.com. https://www.numberanalytics.com/blog/calabi-yau-manifolds-deep-dive-differential-topology#google\_vignette ###### Lee, S. (2025b). The M-Theory Revolution. Numberanalytics.com. https://www.numberanalytics.com/blog/m-theory-revolution ###### Lloyd, S., Maccone, L., Garcia-Patron, R., Giovannetti, V., Shikano, Y., Pirandola, S., Rozema, L. A., Darabi, A., Soudagar, Y., Shalm, L. K., & Steinberg, A. M. (2011). Closed Timelike Curves via Postselection: Theory and Experimental Test of Consistency. Physical Review Letters, 106(4). https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevlett.106.040403 ###### M. S., M. E., & B. A., P. (n.d.). M-Theory: Maybe Even More Dimensions Can Fix String Theory. ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/m-theory-2699256 ###### Mei, Z.-H. (2024). Time Has Two Dimensions-Exploring Coordinate Connotation of Five-Dimensional Space. 24(7), 21–25\. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/381282542\_Time\_Has\_Two\_Dimensions-Exploring\_Coordinate\_Connotation\_of\_Five-Dimensional\_Space ###### Michael B. Schulz: Research Interests - String Theory Compactifications. (2024). Bryn Mawr College. https://www.brynmawr.edu/inside/academic-information/departments-programs/physics/faculty-staff/michael-b-schulz/michael-b-schulz-research-interests-string-theory-compactifications ###### Muntean, I. L. (2017). Unification and explanation in early Kaluza-Klein theories. Escholarship.org. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/5ws3s18g ###### Research Interests - Itzhak Bars. (2024, July 15). Itzhak Bars. https://dornsife.usc.edu/bars/research/ ###### Richmond, A. (2018). Time Travelers. Inference, 3(4). https://inference-review.com/article/time-travelers ###### Rynasiewicz, R. (2011). Newton’s Views on Space, Time, and Motion (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Stanford.edu. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/newton-stm/ ###### Stein, V., & Dobrijevic, D. (2025, May 12). Einstein’s Theory of Special Relativity. Space.com. https://www.space.com/36273-theory-special-relativity.html ###### String Theory. (2025, May 8). Institute for Advanced Study. https://www.ias.edu/default/tags/string-theory ###### Tegmark, M. (1997). On the dimensionality of spacetime. Classical and Quantum Gravity, 14(4), L69–L75\. https://doi.org/10.1088/0264-9381/14/4/002 ###### The Many Dimensions of Oskar Klein. (2021, February 11). Galileo Unbound; Galileo Unbound. https://galileo-unbound.blog/2021/02/10/the-many-dimensions-of-oskar-klein/ ###### There are 2 dimensions of time, theoretical physicist states. (2017, May 9). Big Think. https://bigthink.com/surprising-science/there-are-in-fact-2-dimensions-of-time-one-theoretical-physicist-states/ ###### Tillman, N. T., Bartels, M., & Dutfield, S. (2024, October 29). Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity. Space.com. https://www.space.com/17661-theory-general-relativity.html ###### Visser, M. (2025). The quantum physics of chronology protection. ArXiv.org. https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0204022 ###### Weinstein, S. (2025). Multiple Time Dimensions. ArXiv.org. https://arxiv.org/abs/0812.3869 ###### Wolchover, N. (2017). Why Is M-Theory the Leading Candidate for Theory of Everything? | Quanta Magazine. Quanta Magazine. https://www.quantamagazine.org/why-is-m-theory-the-leading-candidate-for-theory-of-everything-20171218/ --- ### the entire history of spacetime, i guess (part 2) URL: https://youthstemline.com/history-of-spacetime-i-guess-part-2/ Last updated: 2026-06-13T00:24:44.000Z By Aashritha Shankar \~ 8 minutes --- While the concepts of space and time were fundamental to the Newtonian world, centuries of digging deeper into the mechanics of our universe have uncovered that it isn’t all as simple as it seems. From Einstein’s Special Relativity to theories of multi-dimensional time, the science behind space and time has evolved into a complex field. # What are Extra Spatial Dimensions? As scientists explored further into spacetime, theories of more dimensions of space, beyond the three we know, were suggested as a way to explain many of the phenomena that we cannot explain with only three dimensions. These ideas gained most of their traction from the pursuit to combine quantum mechanics with General Relativity, especially issues such as quantum gravity. These theories also attempt to address the rapid growth of the universe after the Big Bang. # What were the motivations to search for Extra Dimensions? The idea of more dimensions began as a way to unify the fundamental forces of our universe. Modern theories regarding these ideas come from a drive to resolve some of the unaddressed issues of the Standard Model of physics. While the Standard Model is able to describe fundamental particles and the strong, weak, and electromagnetic forces, it is unable to describe gravity. In addition, the Standard Model cannot address dark matter and dark energy, which make up the majority of our universe. One of the most significant problems in physics is the Hierarchy problem. It refers to the massive gap in strength between gravity and the other three fundamental forces. This extreme difference comes from the small scale of the strength of gravity in comparison to the other forces. Extra-Dimensions have attempted to resolve this by suggesting that while gravity may be just as strong as the other forces, its strength is leaked into the other dimensions, thus weakening it. This search to discover extra dimensions is not only about solving these specific technical issues; it’s about the centuries-long quest to find a Theory of Everything. Physicists constantly strive to find simpler solutions to describe our universe rather than leaning on hyperspecific coefficients/constants. While there are many theories involving extra-spatial dimensions, part 2 will focus on a few of the biggest and most influential theories so far. # Kaluza-Klein Theory In 1919, Theodor Kaluza proposed his theory of four-dimensional space as an attempt to combine gravity and electromagnetism. This theory was later built upon by Oscar Klein in 1926. In Kaluza’s attempt to combine these fundamental forces, he suggested a fourth, unseen spatial dimension. To create this system, he used Einstein’s equations and extended them into a fifth dimension. He found that the five-dimensional version of Einstein’s equations naturally created the four-dimensional version in one part. The equation had fifteen components, ten of which described our four-dimensional General Relativity. Four of the remaining five described the electromagnetic force through Maxwell’s equations, while the last dimension was the scalar field, which had no known use. A key concept of Kaluza-Klein theory is that, rather than seeing electric charge as simply an event or calculation, it is represented as the motion of the fifth dimension. The attempt to create the simplest mathematical structure that could represent the five dimensions led to the assumption that no part of the five-dimensional Einstein equations relied explicitly on this fifth dimension. Instead, its presence was there to alleviate other issues in the Standard Model without disrupting the basic functions of Einstein’s equations. In order to do this, Kaluza created the cylinder condition, where he described all coordinate values in the fifth dimension to be zero, effectively hiding it at a macroscopic level, preserving the four dimensions that we experience. Oscar Klein produced a physical explanation for the cylinder condition in 1926\. He suggested that the fifth dimension was compactified and curled up into an unobservable circle with an incredibly small radius, explaining that this is why we are unable to witness the fifth dimension. An interesting way to understand this is to think of a hose. From a distance, the hose looks like a single-dimensional line. However, the hose actually has two dimensions, both a dimension of length as well as a circular dimension. This theory revolutionized how physicists thought about spacetime. In a letter to Kaluza that same year, Einstein wrote, > “The idea of achieving unification by means of a five-dimensional cylinder world never dawned on me \[...\]. At first glance, I like your idea enormously. The formal unity of your theory is startling.” (Einstein, *1919*) Over time, Kaluza-Klein theory has been disproven due to its several fundamental flaws. Scientists have tested for Kaluza-Klein resonances, particles that would have to exist if the theory were to be true, and have found none. In addition, Kaluza-Klein theory only addresses gravity and electromagnetism but excludes the strong and weak forces. When incorporated with quantum mechanics, Kaluza-Klein theory predicts many incorrect values for otherwise known constants, showing massive discrepancies. Despite these issues, Kaluza-Klein theory has long been considered the first step into the exploration of extra-dimensions, becoming the precursor to many theories in the decades after. Its core idea- that hidden dimensions cause forces in our four dimensions-has been crucial to further exploration into the concept of spacetime. # String Theory and M-Theory ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-4-w-1024-1.png) String Theory / Kids Press Magazine © String Theory is a very common term, but few people actually know what it means. String theory proposed that instead of the universe being made up of zero-dimensional points, it is made up of strings that vibrate. The specific vibration of these strings would determine what they would be (photon, quark, etc.). The theory aimed to unify all of these different particles and properties into one thing: the string. When physicists first began to work on String Theory, they found many mathematical issues, such as negative probabilities. In four dimensions, these strings don’t have enough space to produce the wide range of vibrations needed to create all the particles in the standard model. Thus, Superstring Theory suggests that these strings are ten-dimensional objects (nine dimensions of space and one of time). A major reason why physicists were happy with string theory at the time was that it naturally predicted a particle called a ‘graviton’. This particle would have the same effect as the force of gravity. Theoretical physicist Edward Witten has commented on this by saying, > "Not only does \[string theory\] make it possible for gravity and quantum mechanics to work together, but it \[...\] forces them upon you." (Edward Witten, *NOVA, PBS*) M-Theory is an extension of String Theory that adds one more spatial dimension. Prior to its creation, different groups of physicists had created five versions of String Theory. However, a true “Theory of Everything” should be one theory, not five possibilities. M-Theory was created as an attempt to unify these five types of string theory. The key to the development of M-Theory was the discovery of mathematical transformations that took you from one version of String Theory to another, showing that these were not truly separate theories. M-theory theorized that these different versions were just different approximations of the same theory that could be unified by adding another dimension. M-Theory’s eleven-dimensional framework allowed for the unification of these five theories alongside the theory of supergravity. M-Theory, similarly to Kaluza-Klein Theory, also proposes that the extra dimensions are curled up and compacted. M-Theory uses a specific geometric shape, known as a Calabi-Yau manifold, to create the physical effects we observe in our four dimensions from the other hidden seven. Calabi-Yau manifolds are a highly compact and complex type of manifold that are the foundation of M-Theory because they allow complex folding without affecting the overall curvature of our universe through a property called “Ricci-flatness”. The Calabi-Yau manifolds also have “holes” within their shapes that are thought to connect to the number of families of particles we experience in the Standard Model. This introduces the key concept that, instead of the fundamental laws of physics just being rules, they are actually geometric properties of our universe. The biggest challenge that M-Theory is facing is its lack of experimental evidence. Predictions made by this model are not testable by currently available or foreseeable technology due to the high-dimensional microscopic levels required. Without making testable predictions, the theory remains just a theory for the time being. Despite this lack of proof, many physicists still see M-Theory as a prominent candidate in our search for a “Theory of Everything”. Its mathematical consistency and its ability to unify both gravitational and quantum effects lead to it being considered highly promising. However, while the math behind M-Theory is highly developed, it is not yet complete. The theory is still a work in progress as research is being conducted to better understand its structure and significance. Meanwhile, critics believe that M-Theory is fundamentally flawed. Many of them believe that the “Landscape” problem is a significant reason that M-Theory is untrue. The “Landscape” problem is described as the fact that the theory predicts many different universes, each with its own set of physical laws. Critics believe that this prediction proves the unreliability of M-Theory and that a true “Theory of Everything” would be applicable only to our universe. Overall, M-Theory has neither been proven nor disproven and remains a crucial area for future exploration. --- ## All references listed on Part 3. --- ### Mist, Crepuscular Rays, Mammatus Clouds, and More URL: https://youthstemline.com/mist-crepuscular-rays-mammatus-clouds-and-more/ Last updated: 2026-06-13T00:25:24.000Z By Charlotte Lee \~ 3 minutes --- # Mist Mist is comprised of tiny droplets of water hanging in the air. They are often white or grey and look like they are floating over land. It is formed when warmer air over water meets cooler air, which rapidly cools the warmer air. Because when the air is rapidly cooled, it turns air (invisible gas) into tiny water droplets. It can also be formed when warm air on land meets cooler air from the ocean. The tiny droplets are particles suspended in the air due to condensation near the surface of the Earth and scatter light, allowing us to see them. Fun Fact: While fog and mist are similar, they are not the same thing. Mist tends to be less dense than fog and does not last as long. ![](https://i.sstatic.net/o2bfa.jpg) Crepuscular Rays / Physics Stack © # Crepuscular rays Crepuscular rays look like sunbeams raining down from a point and have alternating dark and light areas. They are often colored orange and red and are formed when sunlight shines through gaps in the clouds, often during sunrise or sunset, giving them their color. These rays are visible because the sunlight hits vapor, dust, and other particles as it passes through the clouds and has a high enough contrast between shadows and light. The particles then cause the sunlight to scatter and create distinct beams. Fun Fact: The rays are actually parallel, but an optical illusion makes them appear angled. ![](https://aerocrewnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/squallline_226100153WEB.jpg) Mammatus Clouds / Aero Crew News © # Mammatus Cloud Mammatus clouds are rounded pouches of cloud that hang from the underside of a larger cloud. They often form during the warmer months when cool air sinks into warmer air. Mammatus clouds get their unique look when cooler air containing ice crystals and water droplets sinks into warmer, drier air. As it descends, the moisture condenses, forming pouch-like shapes. These clouds are often associated with storms because the cooler air typically comes from cumulonimbus clouds that are connected to thunderstorms. This creates these pouches. There is an association with storms because the cooler air often comes from cumulonimbus clouds that are connected to thunderstorms. Fun Fact: The way that they are formed is the opposite of how most clouds are formed (air rising and cooling), and aircraft stay away from them because they can indicate storm activity and severe thunderstorms. # Other less-known phenomena ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-2-w-1024.png) Anticrepuscular Rays Over Ontario, Canada / USRA © ## Anti-crepuscular rays These rays look like a horizontal crepuscular ray. This phenomenon appears when rays of light and shadows converge at a point opposite the sun, making the rays appear like they are diverging horizontally, even though they are parallel. ![](https://wpde.com/resources/media/7a099771-8d2c-4587-8167-6d3915fcdc63-GettyImages677365600.jpg) Virga Clouds / Adobe iStock © ## Virga clouds Streaks of precipitation that are falling from a cloud, but evaporate before they hit the ground. They look like wispy trails and are often found in deserts or places with higher temperatures. Although the precipitation does not reach the ground, it is often picked up by the radar as rain. --- # References ###### “Crepuscular Rays and Light Scattering.” Nasa.gov, NASA Earth Observatory, 17 July 2022, earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/150090/crepuscular-rays-and-light-scattering. ###### “Mammatus Clouds | Center for Science Education.” Scied.ucar.edu, scied.ucar.edu/image/mammatus-clouds. ###### “Mist.” Education.nationalgeographic.org, education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/mist/. Office, Met. “Virga Clouds.” Met Office, 21 June 2018, weather.metoffice.gov.uk/learn-about/weather/types-of-weather/clouds/other-clouds/virga ###### SpatialNasir. “What’s the Difference between Cloud, Fog, Haze and Mist?” Medium, 7 Sept. 2019, geoafrikana.medium.com/whats-the-difference-between-cloud-fog-haze-and-mist-a06c7cf0cbf3\. Accessed 2 Aug. 2025. ###### “What Is Mist?” Earth.com, www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/mist/. ###### Witt, Derek. “Weather Word of the Week: Crepuscular Rays.” Https://Www.13abc.com, WTVG, 24 Apr. 2025, www.13abc.com/2025/04/24/weather-word-week-crepuscular-rays/. Accessed 2 Aug. 2025. --- ### the entire history of spacetime, i guess (part 1) URL: https://youthstemline.com/a-brief-history-of-space-and-time-part-1/ Last updated: 2026-06-13T00:27:14.000Z By: Aashritha Shankar \~ 8 minutes --- While the concepts of space and time were fundamental to the Newtonian world, centuries of digging deeper into the mechanics of our universe have uncovered that it isn’t all as simple as it seems. From Einstein’s Special Relativity to theories of multi-dimensional time, the science behind space and time has evolved into a complex field. # Newtonian Absolutism At the dawn of classical mechanics, Newton created the foundation upon which all of modern spacetime theory is built. Space and time were considered to be entirely unrelated and absolute concepts. There was no question in his mind that time moves forward and space exists around us. Space was considered a static body within which we exist, while time was described as flowing in only one direction at a steady rate. Imagine space as a box, where events are contained within, and time as a river whose current pulls us along. Newton coined the terms ‘absolute space’ and ‘absolute time’ to describe the absolutes from the relativity we measure. For centuries, this theory remained unquestioned, so physicists didn’t consider time and space to be real entities, but rather our human way of interpreting the world around us. # Einstein’s Revolution: ## Special Relativity The first true challenge to the Newtonian perspective of space and time came in the form of Einstein’s Special Relativity. He introduced one key revolutionary concept: everything, including space and time, is relative, depending only upon the observer’s frame of reference. The motivations for Einstein’s work arose from the desire to eliminate the contradiction between Maxwell’s equations and Newtonian Mechanics. A simple way to visualize this contradiction is by imagining the following scenario: Two rockets in space are flying towards each other at a speed of 500 miles per hour. This would result in a relative speed of 1000 miles per hour. Now, if you were to throw a rock from one ship to another at a speed of 10 miles per hour, it would reach the other ship with a relative speed of 510 miles per hour. However, the substitution of light into this situation instead of a rock changes this because the speed of light is constant. No matter how fast you travel towards light, it will always come towards you at the same constant speed: 3·108m/s, or the speed of light. Many tests were done to prove that the wave-particle duality of light was the reason for this phenomenon. Rather than trying to disprove or explain away the theory, Einstein decided to take the constant speed of light as a fundamental property. He didn’t explain the speed of light, but used it to explain other things. Einstein was willing to give up the time-honored fundamentals of Newton’s laws in favor of the constant speed of light. He began with the basic definition of speed as the distance divided by the time. If the speed of light remains constant as this rocket reduces the distance to be travelled, then the time must also decrease to preserve this equality. When mathematically calculating this, Einstein discovered the concept of time dilation, where objects in motion experience time more slowly than objects at rest. Continuing with similar methods for other properties, such as conservation, he discovered that mass would increase with speed and length would decrease. The true genius in Einstein was his willingness to question his own assumptions and give up some of the most basic qualities of the universe, in favor of the speed of light. ## General Relativity Special Relativity, however, did not incorporate gravity. Before Einstein, physicists believed that gravity was an invisible force that dragged objects towards one another. However, Einstein’s general relativity suggested that the ‘dragging’ was not gravity, but rather an effect of gravity. He theorized that objects in space bent the space around them, inadvertently bringing objects closer to one another. General Relativity defines spacetime as a 4D entity that has to obey a series of equations known as Einstein’s equations. He used these equations to suggest that gravity isn’t a force but instead a name we use to describe the effects of curved spacetime on the distance between objects. Einstein proved a correlation between the mass and energy of an object and the curvature of the spacetime around it. His work allowed him to prove that: > “When forced to summarize the general theory of relativity in one sentence: Time and space and gravitation have no separate existence from matter.” -Einstein. Einstein’s General Relativity predicted many things that were only observationally noticed years later. A famous example of this is gravitational lensing, which is when the path of light curves as it passes a massive object. This effect was noticed by Sir Arthur Eddington in 1919 during a solar eclipse, yet Einstein managed to predict it with no physical proof in 1912. ## Closed-Timelike-Curves (CTCs) Another major prediction made by Einstein’s General Relativity is Closed-Timelike-Curves (CTCs), which arise from mathematical solutions to Einstein’s equations. Some specific solutions to these equations, such as massive, spinning objects, create situations in which time could loop. In physics, objects are considered to have a specific trajectory through spacetime that will indicate the object’s position in space and time *at all times*. When these positions in spacetime are connected, they form a story of an object’s past, present, and future. An object that is sitting still will have a worldline that goes straight in the time direction. Meanwhile, an object in motion will also have an element of spatial position. Diagrams of a worldline are drawn as two light cones, one into the future and one into the past, with a spatial dimension on the other axis, as seen in figure 1. ![](https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXdlyRoxzgkcrSYKWpt8Xebrak7jDnkL6YSJm6T6yHgUTZv3E0S5TXBsE1OrI7vTvnzrYjHSc5xPWB5TiDDOn6KUytuCoYLwGVHpb2LVk8LK2TJATHNrov36mXX_AB4oB43e12Vp?key=sGwVsMPMdHIeGWiUlm_W0Q) **Figure 1* / Takeshimg © CTCs are created when the worldline of an object is a loop, meaning that the object will go backwards in time at some point to reconnect to its starting point. Closed-Timelike-Curves are, in essence, exactly what they sound like: closed curving loops that travel in a timelike way. Traveling in a timelike way, meaning that their change in time is greater than their change in space, suggests that these objects would have to be static or nearly static. As seen in *Figure 2,* the worldline of a CTC would be a loop, as there is some point in space and time that connects the end and the beginning. ![](https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXfY8JrXVMlu4UASygYV1CXNc9cu2KD3DRaA04BDfM47OUObqqD4QrWI-Uc3HmFBvzQ_zZMHbDFWMe2yM4nHQqs7kl2JKCQrfb3MBCr7kwI-zBPoBjcT5TLG2NjQl-IJEWRE0Vqt6w?key=sGwVsMPMdHIeGWiUlm_W0Q) **Figure 2* / Classical and Quantum Gravity / ResearchGate © Two major examples of famous CTC solutions are the Gödel Universe and the Tipler Cylinder: - **Gödel Universe:** Suggested by mathematician Kurt Gödel in 1949, the Gödel Universe is a rotating universe filled with swirling dust. The rotation must be powerful enough that it can pull the spacetime around it as it spins. The curvature would become the CTC. This was the first solution found that suggested the potential for time-travel to be a legitimate possibility, not just a hypothetical scenario. - **Tipler Cylinder:** In the 1970s, physicist Frank Tipler suggested an infinitely long, massive cylinder spinning along the vertical axis at an extremely high speed. This spinning would twist the fabric of spacetime around the cylinder, creating a CTC. Closed timelike curves bring many paradoxes with them, the most famous of which is the grandfather paradox. It states that if a man has a granddaughter who goes back in time to kill her grandfather before her parents are born, then she wouldn’t exist. However, if she doesn’t exist, then there is no one to kill her grandfather, thus meaning that she must exist. Yet if she exists, then her grandfather doesn’t. Most importantly, CTCs drove further exploration and directed significant attention to the spacetime field for decades. Scientists who didn’t fully believe Einstein’s General Relativity pointed to CTCs as proof of why it couldn’t be true, leaving those who supported Einstein to search extensively for a way to explain them. This further exploration into the field has laid the foundation for many theories throughout the years. The belief amongst scientists is that CTCs simply don’t exist because, while they are hypothetically possible, the energy requirements to create them are not yet feasible. Many of these setups require objects with negative energy density and other types of ‘exotic matter’ that have not been proven to even exist yet. Furthermore, even if CTCs were to be formed, the specific region of spacetime where they form would be highly unstable, meaning that these CTCs would not sustain themselves. The situations in which CTCs would be feasible require types of fields of energy that would approach infinity and the Cauchy Horizon (the limit at which causality no longer exists, therefore making these situations physically unviable). --- ## All references listed on Part 3. --- ### Cow Farts, Climate Change, and Coffee: The Unexpected Connection URL: https://youthstemline.com/cow-farts-climate-change-and-coffee-the-unexpected-connection/ Last updated: 2026-06-13T00:29:02.000Z By Wanni Zhu \~10 minutes --- Though seemingly unrelated, cow farts, climate change, and coffee have unexpected connections. For starters, cow farts produce methane – and lots of it. In fact, a single cow can produce a massive amount of methane – usually 250-500 liters per day. Now, think of how many cows we have here on Earth (I’ll give you a hint: it’s 1.5 billion). And while CO2 gets all the attention when it comes to climate change, methane has twice the effect on a per-unit basis. But we can’t just blame climate change on the cows: other livestock also contribute to the greenhouse gases that warm our planet. Well, it’s a good thing that climate change is a widely known issue around the world, right? We know that these gases will cause the heating of the Earth, resulting in ice melting and oceans rising. However, while these problems may take years to manifest, other negative effects won't be nearly as delayed. One impending problem is the devastation that this heat will bring to both weather patterns and crops. Warmer temperatures cause more evaporation, meaning more water in the atmosphere and more storms. Many plants, coffee included, can’t grow in these changing and unstable climates. And while scientists are doing all that they can to fix these problems, individual citizens are unlikely to act unless they understand the full extent of what is going on. # What Is Climate Change? Climate change is a universal issue backed by scientific evidence and recognized by most of the public. The Earth is warming, and rapidly at that. According to NASA, the average global temperature on Earth has increased by at least 1.1° Celsius (1.9° Fahrenheit) since 1880, and the majority of the warming has occurred since 1975, at a rate of roughly 0.15 to 0.20°C per decade. It may not seem like much, but the environment is not accustomed to adapting quickly, and if this goes on, the results could be devastating. # Greenhouse Gases Greenhouse gases - let’s call them GHGs for short - are essential for our survival, but could very well be the key to our doom. The most common GHGs include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. They absorb heat from the Sun and trap the warmth, preventing it from escaping into space. It’s the reason why life on Earth is possible: just like their name, these gases basically function as the glass in a greenhouse, raising the temperature so that we can thrive. But greenhouses can also get *too* hot. The more gases in the atmosphere, the more effective the heat-trapping process is. This excess heat-trapping is precisely what has been occurring over the past few decades, especially since the Industrial Revolution ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/wanni-zhu-cow-farts-article-graph-1-w-1024.png) **Left: Radiative forcing relative to 1750 due to the long-lived greenhouse gases CO**2**, methane, nitrous oxide and the synthetic greenhouse gases, expressed as watts per metre squared. Right: Global mean CO**2 **concentration and global mean greenhouse gas concentrations expressed as CO**2**\-e (ppm). CO**2**\-e is calculated from the atmospheric concentrations of CO**2**, methane, nitrous oxide and the suite of synthetic greenhouse gases.** / Bureau of Meteorology © So, what is causing the surplus of GHGs warming our Earth? One cause is transportation, which accounts for 14% of GHGs. Cars, buses, trains, airplanes – most of them use gasoline, diesel, or jet fuel to function. Burning these materials releases many harmful gases, the most relevant of them carbon dioxide, methane, or nitrous oxide. In some countries, like the US, transportation may be the leading cause of GHG emissions. However, there are many ways to combat these effects. You’ve most likely heard that walking and public transportation will reduce emissions, and they can! Even electric vehicles will help if you’re using clean electricity. Additionally, biofuels and hydrogen can replace fossil fuels in aviation and shipping. Another significant cause is electricity and heat production, which accounts for a fourth of total GHGs alone. These processes still rely heavily on burning fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas. Now that more and more homes and buildings are being constructed, there is a higher electricity demand than before. As a result, more fuel is burned – unless we switch to cleaner sources such as wind, solar, or hydro power. Transmission losses (electricity lost as it travels over power lines) require extra generation, further increasing emissions. Therefore, improving efficiency in buildings and the power grid could reduce the demand and associated GHGs. Buildings can cause around 6-7% of GHG emissions. The production of materials like cement, steel, and aluminum all release gases such as carbon dioxide, and use the process of burning fossil fuels. According to the BBC, cement production contributes 8% of global GHGs. Not to mention, transporting those materials and the use of heavy machinery and equipment while building them also adds to emissions. These are all large and well-known reasons that contribute to GHG emissions, so let’s take a look at something lesser known. Agriculture. # What About Cows? Let's be honest: your answer to the question about major sources of GHGs was probably not cows. But, in truth, these adorable creatures that we raise account for around 14.5 percent of greenhouse gases that warm our planet. Of course, it’s not cows alone: other livestock, including chickens, horses, pigs, and more, are all included in that percentage. We’re looking at cows specifically because a breakthrough with them could lead to resulting solutions with the other animals, and cows are large and easy to work with. Cows make methane in two ways: through their digestive process and their waste. They are part of a group of animals called ruminants, with four distinct stomach chambers. The first is called the rumen, a home for microorganisms that break down the starch and sugar from plants. The next chamber is called the reticulum, where hard-to-digest plant materials are stored. The next chamber is called the omasum, which mechanically breaks the food down further. Finally, the last chamber is called the abomasum, which absorbs the nutrients from the food. In the rumen, a process called enteric fermentation takes place. This is where the previously stated microorganisms and bacteria break down complex carbohydrates and turn them into sugars. The resulting products include volatile fatty acids (used as a major energy source for the cows), as well as GHGs such as carbon dioxide and methane. The gases are released from the cows either as burps or farts. # What Are We Doing About It? ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/wanni-zhu-cow-farts-article-cow-picture-webp-w-500.jpg) Trend Hunter / INTA © Scientists are attempting to find the most effective solution to this large problem. There have been many different approaches to this issue, some of which are below. One method that has been used is seaweed in the cow feed. A 2018 study focused on mixing a seaweed species called *Asparagopsis armata* with hay and small amounts of molasses. Animal science professor Ermias Kebreab says they're hoping that the seaweed can inhibit an enzyme that's involved in producing methane in a cow's gut, a chemical reaction discovered by researchers in Australia. After a day of eating this feed, the cow’s methane emission dropped by a drastic 50%. However, they also discovered a small dent in the amount of food consumed, as well as milk produced, due to the seaweed’s ocean smell. The next steps of this experiment are to find ways so the cows don’t notice the seaweed, and plan an experiment to use beef cattle instead of dairy cattle. Though there is still a long way before this can be implemented on a large scale, even the smallest start can lead to a bigger solution. Another study from 2019 discovered that selective breeding can lead to a “cleaner cow.” Project's leaders and co-author Professor John Williams says: "What we showed is that the level and type of methane-producing microbes in the cow is to a large extent controlled by the cow's genetic makeup.” By selecting cattle that produce less methane than their counterparts, it may be possible to create a livestock industry that generates fewer GHGs. However, the breeding will also depend on other desired characteristics, such as meat quality, milk, and disease resistance. Finally, Argentina’s National Institute of Agricultural Technology (INTA) created the cow-fart-backpack (the picture shown above). This device captures the methane from these cows through a tube in their skin, which scientists claim is painless. The gas is then condensed and ready to provide power for the farm. By utilizing this gas for power, farms would consume less purchased gas and thereby reduce the total emissions. # Where Does Coffee Come In? Even with all these solutions, climate change is still one of the biggest issues out there. One common outcome that you may have heard of is the rising ocean levels. Because of the rapid heating, the northern and southern reaches of the planet are warming faster than any area on Earth, with the temperatures there rising twice as much as elsewhere. This damages the fragile ecosystems there, leaving less space for animals such as polar bears, seals, and penguins to venture. Not only that, but the sheer amount of ice that is melting each year has increased ocean levels drastically. According to NASA, the ocean levels have risen 10.1 centimeters since 1992. But there’s another effect that’s less heard of. Agriculture will also be greatly impacted by climate change, as some plants need very specific temperatures and weather conditions to grow. Let’s take a closer look at coffee. Some plants need very specific temperatures and weather conditions to grow, and now that it’s all changing, the locations where the plants grow would need to change with it. For example, the coffee plant grows in temperatures of around 15-24 C, or 60-70 F. Areas such as Hawaii, Africa, and Brazil are all large coffee exporters, but if the temperatures keep rising, coffee would cease to grow in those places. Coffee plants are highly sensitive to temperature and moisture changes, and stress leads to lower yields and flavor quality. But, it’s okay, right? We can just plant coffee in different areas that are now suitable for coffee growth! Not quite. Coffee takes 3-4 years to grow, and needs to be processed after. Processing plants will take even longer to build, not to mention the cost and GHG emissions. So, in that time, global coffee supply shortages would lead to higher coffee prices, affecting consumers and businesses. Millions of jobs in farming, processing, transport, and retail depend on coffee, leading to unemployment in producing regions. Countries that rely on coffee exports would suffer major losses in GDP and stability. Now think of this on a large scale. Not just coffee, but other plants as well. The world would be in chaos: jobs lost, prices increased drastically, and businesses shut down. These are the results of climate change. # Conclusion Ultimately, climate change is affecting our world fast. With the temperatures rising each year and GHG emissions growing, the world is in dire need of a solution. Though there isn’t a single “correct” fix to this problem, everything that we do to prevent it counts. The effects of climate change can be disastrous – environments are being destroyed, oceans are rising, and plants are dying. But…if everyone helps, if everyone contributes, and understands just how dangerous and volatile climate change can be…perhaps we can prevent the problem that we are causing in the first place. --- # References ###### Center for Climate and Energy Solutions. 2019\. “Main Greenhouse Gases | Center for Climate and Energy Solutions.” Center for Climate and Energy Solutions. June 6, 2019. https://www.c2es.org/content/main-greenhouse-gases/. ###### NASA. 2022\. “World of Change: Global Temperatures.” Earth Observatory. NASA Earth Observatory. 2022\. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/world-of-change/global-temperatures. ###### Okshevsky, Mira. 2020\. “Cows, Methane, and Climate Change.” Let’s Talk Science. March 15, 2020\. https://letstalkscience.ca/educational-resources/stem-in-context/cows-methane-and-climate-change. ###### “Potential for Reduced Methane from Cows.” 2019\. ScienceDaily. 2019\. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/07/190708112514.htm. ###### Rodgers, Lucy. 2018\. “Climate Change: The Massive CO2 Emitter You May Not Know About.” BBC News, December 17, 2018\. https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-46455844. ###### “Surf and Turf: To Reduce Gas Emissions from Cows, Scientists Look to the Ocean.” n.d. NPR.org. https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2018/07/03/623645396/surf-and-turf-to-reduce-gas-emissions-from-cows-scientists-look-to-the-ocean. ###### “The Causes of Climate Change.” Edited by Kalina Velev. NASA. October 23, 2024\. https://science.nasa.gov/climate-change/causes/. --- ### Gene Editing in Focus URL: https://youthstemline.com/gene-editing-in-focus/ Last updated: 2026-06-13T00:29:18.000Z By Maggie Wright \~6 minutes --- Advancements in genetic engineering have brought revolutionary tools to the forefront of biotechnology, with CRISPR leading as one of the most precise and cost-effective methods of gene editing. CRISPR, which stands for *Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats*, allows scientists to alter DNA sequences by targeting specific sections of the genome. Originally discovered as part of a bacterial immune system, CRISPR systems have now been adapted to serve as programmable gene-editing platforms. This paper explores how CRISPR works, its current uses, its future potential, and the ethical considerations surrounding its application in both human and non-human systems. # How CRISPR System Works The CRISPR-Cas system operates by combining a specially designed RNA molecule with a CRISPR-associated protein, such as Cas9 or Cas12a. The RNA guides the protein to a specific sequence in the genome, where the protein then cuts the DNA. Once the strand is cut, natural repair mechanisms within the cell are activated. Researchers can either allow the cell to disable the gene or insert a new gene into the gap. As described by researchers at Stanford University, > “The system is remarkably versatile, allowing scientists to silence genes, replace defective segments, or even insert entirely new sequences.” *(CRISPR Gene Editing and Beyond)* This mechanism has been compared to a pair of molecular scissors that can cut with precision. For example, the Cas9 protein is programmed with a guide RNA to recognize a DNA sequence of about 20 nucleotides. Once it finds the target, it makes a double-stranded cut. The repair process that follows enables gene knockouts, insertions, or corrections. This technology has dramatically reduced the time and cost associated with gene editing, making previously complex tasks achievable in weeks rather than months. According to a 2020 review, > “CRISPR/Cas9 offers researchers a user-friendly, relatively inexpensive, and highly efficient method for editing the genome.” *(Computational Tools and Resources Supporting CRISPR-Cas Experiments)* ![](https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXcWen1BPOMgJAH-MPTRxVo5phSGgKtO_95plvbkhW_Im2zrDoau_4e2RjFMUcCZRkk7MZYblm6F49K2HeJyfwULO7rUDo2BcbfCQOlCr-9B01Pxl4g2KgHzPZWi9pDabFlG9hy3sQ?key=TRdPn0svQj9XuPStneHz_g) A simple guide to CRISPR / Javier Zarracina / Vox © # CRISPR’s Application in Medicine CRISPR's influence extends across many fields, but its role in medicine has attracted the most attention. Scientists are using CRISPR to treat genetic diseases such as sickle cell anemia by editing patients’ own stem cells outside the body and then reinserting them. In 2023, researchers published results showing that a single treatment could permanently alleviate symptoms for some patients with these genetic diseases (Zhang 4.) Another area of exploration includes its potential for treating cancers by modifying immune cells to better recognize and destroy cancerous tissue. According to *Molecular Cancer*, > “Gene editing technologies have successfully demonstrated the correction of mutations in hematopoietic stem cells, offering hope for long-term cures.” *(Zhang 3)* ![](https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXfCrnxbbeM6g4cN5m3GAA_fJxRW1N0-wKZYXUgat46IokZ3oxMpZz0d4lJTXYcQ7RkOI5dGNTbPhR1e1R1E2f2I8bEQKVThON1eY2JRLiwTO47IzOnSE7JdH-aH9njRPabxUoiFjA?key=TRdPn0svQj9XuPStneHz_g) Current gene-editing uses / Royal Society © # CRISPR in Agriculture Beyond human health, CRISPR has transformed agricultural practices. Scientists are using it to develop crops that resist pests, drought, or disease without the need for traditional genetic modification methods that insert foreign DNA. One of the longer processes of traditional modifications in DNA could include conjugation. This is moving genetic material through bacterial cells in a direct contact. Conjugation is just one example of many of the traditional genetic modification methods. CRISPR has been used to produce tomatoes with longer shelf lives and rice varieties that can survive in low-water environments. According to the World Economic Forum, > “CRISPR can help build food security by making crops more resilient and nutritious.” *(CRISPR Gene Editing for a Better World)* Such developments are increasingly critical in addressing global food demands and climate challenges. Research is also underway to apply CRISPR in animal breeding and disease control. In mosquitoes, scientists are testing ways to spread genes that reduce malaria transmission. In livestock, researchers are working to produce animals that are more resistant to disease. These experiments, while promising, require cautious monitoring to ensure ecosystem stability and safety. # Future Potential Looking ahead, new techniques are refining CRISPR's capabilities. Base editing allows researchers to change a single letter of DNA without cutting the strand entirely, reducing the off-targeting effect such as prime editing, a newer method that uses an engineered protein to insert new genetic material without causing double-stranded breaks. These tools provide even more control. According to the Stanford report, > “Prime editing may become the preferred approach for correcting single-point mutations, which are responsible for many inherited diseases.” *(CRISPR Gene Editing and Beyond)* # Possible Concerns Despite its potential, CRISPR also raises important ethical concerns. One of the most debated topics is germline editing, or the modification of genes in human embryos or reproductive cells. Changes made at this level can be passed down to future generations, leading to unknown consequences. In 2018, the birth of twin girls in China following germline editing sparked international outrage and led to widespread calls for stricter regulation. The scientific community responded swiftly, with many organizations calling for a global prohibition on clinical germline editing. As CRISPR & Ethics - Innovative Genomics Institute (IGI) states, > “Without clear guidelines, genome editing can rapidly veer into ethically gray areas, particularly in germline applications.” Another concern is the potential for unintended consequences, known as off-target effects. These are accidental changes to parts of the genome that were not intended to be edited, which could lead to harmful mutations or unforeseen health problems. I will expand on this later in the article. Researchers are actively developing tools to better predict and detect such errors, but long-term safety remains a topic of study. The possibility of using CRISPR for non-therapeutic purposes, such as enhancing physical or cognitive traits. Cost and accessibility are also significant factors. Although the CRISPR tools themselves are affordable for research institutions, the cost of CRISPR-based therapies remains high. According to Integrated DNA Technologies, > “Therapies based on CRISPR currently cost hundreds of thousands of dollars per patient, limiting their availability.” *(CRISPR-Cas9: Pros and Cons)* Bridging this gap requires investments in infrastructure, policy development, and global partnerships to ensure that developing countries are not left behind. In conclusion, CRISPR is reshaping the landscape of genetics and biotechnology. It has already brought major advances to medicine, agriculture, and environmental science. While the technology is still evolving, its precision offers a glimpse into the future of human health. CRISPR the potential to unlock solutions to some of humanity’s most pressing challenges. --- # References ###### “5 Novel Uses of CRISPR Gene Editing.” Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology News, www.genengnews.com/topics/genome-editing/5-novel-uses-of-crispr-gene-editing. Accessed 31 July 2025. ###### “CRISPR Gene Editing and Beyond.” Stanford News, Stanford University, 2024, news.stanford.edu/stories/2024/06/stanford-explainer-crispr-gene-editing-and-beyond. Accessed 31 July 2025. ###### “CRISPR-Cas9 Gene Editing.” Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, www.broadinstitute.org/news/crispr-cas9-gene-editing-explained. Accessed 31 July 2025. ###### “CRISPR Gene Editing for a Better World.” World Economic Forum, 2024, [www.weforum.org/stories/2024/04/crispr-gene-editing-better-world](http://www.weforum.org/stories/2024/04/crispr-gene-editing-better-world?ref=youthstemline.com). Accessed 31 July 2025. ###### “CRISPR-Cas9: What Are the 10 Pros and 7 Cons?” IDT DNA, Integrated DNA Technologies, [www.idtdna.com/pages/community/blog/post/crispr-cas9-what-are-the-10-pros-and-7-cons](http://www.idtdna.com/pages/community/blog/post/crispr-cas9-what-are-the-10-pros-and-7-cons?ref=youthstemline.com). Accessed 31 July 2025. ###### “Current Gene Editing Uses.” National Human Genome Research Institute, www.genome.gov/about-genomics/fact-sheets/Genome-Editing. Accessed 31 July 2025. ###### Lino, Cathryn A., et al. “Delivering CRISPR: A Review of Methods and Applications.” Drug Delivery and Translational Research, vol. 8, no. 1, 2020, pp. 1–14\. PubMed Central, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7427626/. Accessed 31 July 2025. ###### Zhang, Yujing, et al. “Gene Editing in Cancer: Opportunities and Challenges.” Molecular Cancer, vol. 22, no. 48, 2023, [https://molecular-cancer.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12943-023-01925-5](https://molecular-cancer.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12943-023-01925-5?ref=youthstemline.com). Accessed 31 July 2025. --- ### How Microplastics in the Placenta and Other Reproductive Parts Pose a Threat to Human Health URL: https://youthstemline.com/how-microplastics-in-the-placenta-and-other-reproductive-parts-pose-a-threat-to-human-health/ Last updated: 2026-06-13T00:31:31.000Z By Gabrielle Eisenberg \~17 minutes --- > “Not only are plastics polluting our oceans and waterways and killing marine life – it's in all of us and we can't escape consuming plastics,” says Marco Lambertini, Director General of WWF International \[20\]. The emergence of plastic and its accumulation in people and the environment has been a rising global concern for over 80 years, since it first caught the attention of scientists in the 1960s due to the observed effects in marine species \[7\]. Even more concerning, plastics continue to accumulate on the planet year after year. In 2019, there were a predicted 22 million tons of plastic worldwide, with a projected 44 million tons of plastic polluting our earth within the next 35 years \[5\]. In particular, humans inhale about 53,700 particles of plastic a year and orally ingest anywhere between 74,000 and 121,000 annually \[5\]. Plastics production and environmental buildup are surging with modern prosperity and efficiency, posing a serious threat to human reproductive health as they accumulate in critical reproductive organs like the placenta. # Microplastics > “Microplastics could become the most dangerous environmental contamination of the 21st century, with plastic in everything we consume, it may seem helpless.” \[18\] Microplastics are tiny particles of plastic that are contained in the air, plastic dust, food, fabrics, table salt, trash, and nearly every part of modern life. They can range from five millimeters to one micrometer (µm) \[11\]. Even smaller sizes of microplastics, called nanoplastics, pose a threat to human cells. Less than 100 nm in size, nanoplastics can cross all organs, including the placenta and blood system \[11\]. Microplastics of size ≤ 20 µm can enter any organ, and; ≤ 100 µm can be absorbed from the gut to the liver \[11\]. Scientists have discovered microplastics in many parts of the human body, including the liver, blood, and other reproductive organs, including the placenta \[15\]. Microplastics have multiple routes of getting into the body, which makes them a challenging threat for humans to overcome. To begin, they can be absorbed into the body by wearing clothes with fabrics containing plastic, like polyester. Although this most commonly occurs via inhalation of microplastics in the air, emerging theories also suggest that with long enough exposure to intact or open wounds, absorption of nanoplastics through the skin is possible as well. Inhalation can also occur from air pollution, specifically in areas with high carbon dioxide and dust levels. In addition, microplastics can be consumed through foods we eat, or plastics we drink or touch, like plastic straws. Marine life also consumes a significant amount of microplastics from pollution in the ocean. Importantly for humans, this is an entry point to the food supply, as the contaminated marine life will then pass the microplastics up the food chain to humans when we eat seafood \[11\]. Moreover, cleaning products and cosmetics can contain a high amount of plastics that are absorbed into the skin \[11\]. Some estimates say that a credit card’s worth of microplastics is inhaled by an individual human every week \[2\]. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-3-w-1024-2.png) Micro plastics mixed in the sand in Famara beach / Lanzarote / Inside Water © A practical solution would be to pass the microplastics in the stool; however, the plastics do not always leave the body via waste. Sometimes, microplastics accumulate in the body over long periods of time and absorb into the intestines, bloodstream, and other tissues. Microplastics tend to find their way into crucial arteries and tissues due to their molecular composition. They are made of synthetic polymers, a series of repeating monomers. The monomers in microplastics are made up of carbon and hydrogen atoms and occasionally have oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine, or sulfur atoms inside \[3\]. Some of the main components of microplastics are their polymer chains because, like polyethylene, they contain monomers like (–CH₂–CH₂–)ₙ \[3\]. Also, plastics usually contain additives to enhance their usual properties, but they also have harmful effects on humans. For example, phthalates, which make polyethylene flexible, negatively impact reproductive signals, while colorants are not chemically bonded to the polymer, and thus escape into the environment \[3\]. Most importantly, microplastics are mostly hydrophobic, which means they repel against water. This causes them to bind with oily substances and bioaccumulate in human tissues \[3\]. # Female Reproductive System The reproductive system is a highly complex system requiring the coordination between several organ systems and the endocrine system to ensure the human body is an adequate environment for fetal development. The hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, located between the brain and reproductive organs helps to control ovulation and coordinate reproductive behavior \[8\]. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-4-w-785.png) Hypothalamic pituitary gonadal axis / IJMS / ResearchGate © First, a primary signal called the GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone) is produced by the hypothalamic neurons, which stimulates the pituitary gland to release two important hormones: FSH (follicle–a fluid filled sac in the ovary that contains the immature egg–stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone) \[8\]. These hormones lead to ovarian growth, egg maturation, and preparation of the uterine lining for pregnancy \[8\]. As the follicles grow, they start to make a form of estrogen known as estradiol, which will ultimately slow down the production of GnRH and FSH \[8\]. Once there is an adequate amount of estradiol, the GnRH and FSH will burst and surge, leading to ovulation. These reproductive hormones, such as GnRH, regulate the proper timing of a woman’s reproductive cycle \[8\]. However, foreign chemicals, microplastics, and agents can interfere with hormonal signals, either blocking or mimicking them. This disruption can cause infertility, irregular menstrual cycles, and complications in fetal development, since hormones are key to regulating and protecting the growth of vital organs like the baby’s brain and heart \[8\]. The placenta forms in a woman during pregnancy. The placenta is crucial for fetal development as it connects the fetal and maternal circulations via the umbilical cord. It supports the baby's growth and development by providing nutrition and removing waste from the baby’s blood. In addition, the organ plays a major role in immunity because it helps the fetus identify self versus non-self cells and antigens. The placenta is located on the wall of the uterus lining and usually on the top, side, and sometimes even the lower area. When the placenta is too low, it raises a risk known as placenta previa, which is caused when the organ covers the cervical opening, and it can develop this way if microplastics were to block and change growth signaling for the placenta \[14\]. # Microplastics in Female Reproduction Microplastics enter the human placenta through many of the same pathways they use to accumulate in other tissues. First, they can be introduced through food consumption or inhalation \[2\]. Then, particles are absorbed through the gut and travel into the bloodstream, where they find their way into the placenta during pregnancy. On a molecular level, after entering the body, their hydrophobic polymer chains prevent normal decomposition \[2\]. This means microplastics can proceed and bind to other toxins such as heavy metals, which can enhance the harmful effects in living organisms. Once inside the body, the microplastics can cross membranes such as those in the gut, like the M-cells in the intestinal lining, through the cellular process of endocytosis, which can take in foreign particles \[2\]. From there, they can enter the lymphatic system and/or the bloodstream \[2\]. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-5-w-850.png) Structure of the placenta / Frontiers in immunology / ResearchGate © Another pathway for microplastics is that sometimes they can bypass the digestive system completely through cells or between cells transport, which is also known as trans-cellular and paracellular transport \[2\]. Once in the bloodstream, microplastics can circulate to any part of the body, including the placenta. While the placenta does have a layer to protect it from harmful substances called a syncytiotrophoblast layer, nanoplastics can bypass this layer through endocytosis or passive diffusion through functional surfaces coated with proteins \[2\]. Once inside, the microplastics may interact with intracellular structures like the mitochondria, which can affect energy production, the endoplasmic reticulum, and as a result impact protein synthesis and lysosomes, ultimately leading to cell damage \[2\]. Studies show high levels of microplastics in human placental tissue: In a 2024 study led by Dr. Matthew Campen and colleagues, microplastics were found in all 64 placentas studied, with amounts ranging from 6.5 to 790 micrograms per gram of tissue. Moreover, it was found that 54% of the plastic was polyethylene, the plastic that makes up plastic bags and bottles, with polyvinyl chloride and nylon being 10%, and the rest being nine other polymers \[13\]. This suggests that a majority of the placental microplastics are likely inhaled due to direct contact with the plastics on our mouth, nose, hands, etc. Another study showed that 10.9% of all microplastics found in a human body were in the placenta, demonstrating how common microplastic exposure is during human development \[5\]. Thus, microplastics can enter the developing fetus through the placenta \[13\]. Multiple international studies have found microplastics within the placenta and neonatal samples, suggesting a widespread exposure of microplastics globally \[4\]. Between 2021 and 2023, seven studies were conducted in four countries, which showed a high percentage of microplastics in the placental tissue. In 2021, an Italian study identified microplastics in four out of six placentas from vaginal births using light microscopy and Raman microspectroscopy \[9\]. In another Italian study, all ten placentas (from both vaginal and Cesarean section births) contained microplastics \[9\]. Electron microscopy revealed cellular damage, although the association with microplastics was not definitive \[9\]. Importantly, higher microplastics and polymer levels were linked to greater water consumption and frequent use of certain personal care products \[9\]. In 2022, an Iranian study detected microplastics in 13/13 placentas from the intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) group and only 4/30 in the normal group \[9\]. This study implied that microplastic exposure may affect fetal development and normal growth. More studies also showed the presence of microplastics in cord blood samples \[4\]. However, only a few were tested since there is no commercially available test to find microplastics in placentas. These studies demonstrate that, as reproduction continues, this cycle could lead to a growing buildup of microplastics in future offspring and a possibility of new illnesses that will go unnoticed. Placental microplastics affect reproduction and early fetal development. Fetal development begins from the first stage of pregnancy, often before many women realize they are pregnant \[19\]. There are three stages of fetal development: germinal, embryonic, and fetal \[19\]. The germinal stage is where the sperm and egg combine to form the zygote \[19\]. From there, the zygote turns into a blastocyst, where it is implanted into the uterus \[19\]. Next is the embryonic stage, usually from around the third week of pregnancy to the eighth week \[19\]. During this stage, the blastocyst becomes an embryo as the baby develops human characteristics such as organs \[19\]. At weeks five to six, the heart is recognized in the baby, and little arm and leg stubs are also discoverable \[19\]. Finally, the fetal stage begins around the ninth week and lasts until birth. During the fetal stage, the baby develops its primary sex characteristics that officially turn the embryo into a fetus. The fetus also grows hair and fingernails at this time and can start to move \[19\]. Microplastics can affect fetal development in several ways. Ultimately, babies are born pre-polluted \[12\]. > "If we are seeing effects on placentas, then all mammalian life on this planet could be impacted," says Dr. Matthew Campen, Regents’ Professor, UNM Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences. Once the microplastics and nanoplastics enter cells, including both germ and somatic cells, they can cause oxidative damage, which can lead to DNA damage and cell death \[16\]. Microplastics can lead to cell death through pyroptosis \[16\], a highly inflammatory form of lytic programmed cell death caused by microbial infection \[17\]. When microplastics are detected, there is trafficking of immune cells like natural killer, T cells, and uterine dendritic cells to extinguish them as they are detected as non-self \[16\]. In mouse models, placental microplastics were shown to reduce the number of live births, alter the sex ratio of offspring, and cause fetal growth restriction, all effects that have also been observed in humans. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-6-w-1024-2.png) Microplastics in mice shown to reduce the number of live births / Wikimedia Commons © If one of these effects is already seen in humans, it raises the possibility that the others could follow. Since microplastics are present in human tissues, the outcomes seen in animal models like hormonal disruption, reduced sperm count and viability, decreased egg quality, neurophysiological and cognitive deficits, and disrupted embryonic development, \[1\] could also emerge in humans. Furthermore, microplastics can change the gut microbiome and hormonal signaling, which can directly impact normal physiology and alter the signals sent between the uterus and embryo \[1\]. They do this by changing the balance and composition of the gut, which can lead to dysbiosis, an imbalance of the gut bacteria \[10\]. Some changes to the delicate gut microbiome could cause a condition called leaky gut, which shifts the previously semi-permeable membrane into a hyperpermeable one \[10\]. Emerging research demonstrates increasing rates of infertility, with scientists implicating environmental exposures, including microplastics. Microplastics may also affect the endocrine system, which leads to neurodevelopmental issues in the offspring \[1\]. Another feature of abnormal pregnancies can be high blood pressure in mothers (like preeclampsia), which can result in organ failure and severe problems in the mother \[1\]. The endocrine system is the hormone-regulating system in your body that directly involves the glands of the gonads (ovaries and testes). Microplastics can interfere with the production of these hormones due to the additive factors the polymers carry, like Bisphenol A (BPA), which is used to harden the plastic \[1\]. These chemicals are known as endocrine-disrupting chemicals. In addition to this, it can directly bind to the hormone receptors and block normal signaling \[1\]. Such effects can change gene expression, cause hormone-related cancers, and most importantly, impact fetal endocrine function and development, including lower birth weight and reproductive disorders \[1\]. Ovarian cysts—fluid-filled sacs that develop on or in the ovaries—can also be caused by microplastics in the reproductive system \[15\]. When a hormone signal is out of balance, it can trigger the egg not to be released, which can persist to form a cyst \[15\]. Although this is still being researched by scientists today, there has been a direct correlation in mice, suggesting microplastics disrupt ovarian follicle development. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/image-8-w-800.png) Ovarian cyst / Zen Hospital © While the immediate effects of microplastics in placentas are concerning, there are other long-term concerns, such as a generational impact, that raise a sense of urgency to the issue. First, microplastics do not disappear once a person dies \[6\]. The synthetic particles of microplastics resist biodegradation when the body is buried or even cremated \[6\]. This means it can reenter the ecosystem and harm other organisms \[6\]. On the other hand, microplastics are also being passed from generation to generation through parental gametes and the placenta. Microplastics can lead to more detrimental impacts that haven’t even been discovered yet. With more and more accumulation, the body can respond in many different ways that are hard to predict. However, it can be assumed that populations with more microplastics are more likely to be infertile in the future. One can imagine a scenario in which natural selection might occur, as people with less microplastics or who are less affected by their presence will be better able to survive and reproduce. # Summary and Conclusion Microplastics lead to hormone imbalances of estrogen and other hormones in female bodies by disrupting hormone signaling (activating and blocking), and altering reproductive organ function and development, including infant birth weight, length, and head circumference \[10\]. Microplastics can interfere with gene expression or epigenetic markers, which can alter the way a fetus develops \[10\]. They can cut gene readings short, which could lead to affecting their length or head circumference \[10\]. Impaired egg development and follicular growth can impair fertility and have been linked with microplastic exposure \[10\]. Similarities can be seen in male fertility as microplastics affect the inflammatory response, change hormone levels with their disrupting and toxic chemicals, and cause cellular damage to the development of the gametes \[5\]. Overall, the effects of microplastics on reproductive systems have grave consequences, with evidence suggesting infertility in humans. In addition to understanding the effects of microplastics on human health and reproduction, scientists are working to rid the body of microplastics. By studying plastic-eating microorganisms, they can examine the enzymes they have that allow them to process microplastics naturally \[10\]. Additionally, as there is increasing understanding of methods of exposure, such as inhalation or absorption, \[10\], there are ways to reduce the chance of microplastic exposure to your body. For example, humans face the biggest possibility of exposure from food. Fish is a great source of nutrients and protein, however, it is extremely crucial to know that fish carry large quantities of microplastics ingested in the ocean. By ensuring trash and plastics do not end up in aquatic ecosystems, humans can reduce the chance of microplastics entering the food chain. Scientists are also advocating for the elimination of single-use plastic and finding a more sustainable way to save the human population and the environment. --- # References ###### Adverse effects of microplastics and nanoplastics on the reproductive system: A Comprehensive Review of Fertility and Potential Harmful Interactions. 10 Dec. 2023, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969723048830. ###### “Alarming Increase in Microplastics Detected in Human Placentas.” ScienceAlert, 23 Dec. 2023, www.sciencealert.com/alarming-increase-in-microplastics-detected-in-human-placentas. Accessed 24 Apr. 2025. ###### A Simple Technique for Studying the Interaction of Polypropylene-Based Microplastics with Adherent Mammalian Cells Using a Holder. Feb. 2025, research.ebsco.com/c/3uzxq3/search/details/hul46wuiu5?isDashboardExpanded=true&limiters=FT1%3AY&q=DE%20%22MICROPLASTICS%22. ###### Chemical Analysis of Microplastics and Nanoplastics: Challenges, Advanced Methods, and Perspectives. 26 Aug. 2021, pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00178. ###### Cleveland Clinic. “Fetal Development.” Cleveland Clinic, 19 Mar. 2024, my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/7247-fetal-development-stages-of-growth. ###### Comparison of Microplastic Levels in Placenta and Cord Blood Samples of Pregnant Women With Fetal Growth Retardation and Healthy Pregnant Women. Kutahya Health Sciences University, 1 Apr. 2022\. clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT05070715?cond=placenta&term=microplastics&rank=1. ###### Exposure to Microplastics and Human Reproductive Outcomes: A Systematic Review. 29 Jan. 2024, obgyn.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1471-0528.17756. ###### From Cradle to Grave: Microplastics—A Dangerous Legacy for Future Generations. 22 Nov. 2024, www.mdpi.com/2076-3298/11/12/263. ###### Haederle, Michael. “Microplastics in Every Human Placenta, New UNM Health Sciences Research Discovers.” UNM HSC Newsroom, 2024, hscnews.unm.edu/news/hsc-newsroom-post-microplastics. ###### History and Future of Plastics. Science History Institute, www.sciencehistory.org/education/classroom-activities/role-playing-games/case-of-plastics/history-and-future-of-plastics/#:\~:text=Growing%20Concerns%20About%20Plastics&text=In%20the%20postwar%20years%2C%20there,increasingly%20aware%20of%20environmental%20problems. Accessed 23 Apr. 2025. ###### Hormonal Regulation of Female Reproduction. Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart, 2012, www.thieme-connect.de/products/ejournals/abstract/10.1055/s-0032-1306301\. Accessed 29 Mar. 2025. ###### Hunt K, Davies A, Fraser A, Burden C, Howell A, Buckley K, et al. Exposure to microplastics and human reproductive outcomes: A systematic review. BJOG. 2024; 131(5): 675–683\. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0528.17756. ###### Leaky Gut Syndrome. Cleveland Clinic, 6 Apr. 2022, my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22724-leaky-gut-syndrome. ###### Microplastics Everywhere. 2023, magazine.hms.harvard.edu/articles/microplastics-everywhere. ###### Microplastics Found in Human Placenta. 17 Mar. 2021, eco-nnect.com/microplastics-found-in-human-placenta/. ###### Placenta: How It Works, What's Normal. Mayo Clinic Staff, 8 Mar. 2024, www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/pregnancy-week-by-week/in-depth/placenta/art-20044425#:\~:text=The%20placenta%20is%20an%20organ,nutrients%20to%20a%20developing%20baby. ###### "Plasticenta: First Evidence of Microplastics in Human Placenta.” Jan. 2021, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412020322297#:\~:text=Potentially%2C%20MPs%2C%20and%20in%20general,foetal%20communication%2C%20signalling%20between%20the. ###### Plastic Pollution Enters Human Placenta. 29 Dec. 2020, www.medindia.net/news/healthinfocus/plastic-pollution-enters-human-placenta-199111-1.html. ###### Pyroptosis: Mechanisms and Diseases. 29 Mar. 2021, www.nature.com/articles/s41392-021-00507-5. ###### Palanisami, Thava. “Plastic Ingestion by People Could Be Equating to a Credit Card a Week.” The University of Newcastle, Australia, 12 June 2019, www.newcastle.edu.au/newsroom/featured/plastic-ingestion-by-people-could-be-equating-to-a-credit-card-a-week. --- ### Perovskite Based Photovoltaic Paint URL: https://youthstemline.com/perovskite-based-photovoltaic-paint/ Last updated: 2026-06-13T00:34:27.000Z By Katherine Mao \~ 9 minutes --- Imagine a world where every surface—the walls, the roof of your car—harnesses the sun to power your surroundings. Not with stiff, bulky solar panels, but with something as simple and inconspicuous as paint. Thanks to new and evolving technology, this vision inches closer and closer to reality. Perovskite-based photovoltaic paint is a developing technology with the potential to turn any paintable surface into a solar panel. # What are Perovskites? Perovskites are a class of crystalline materials with the structural formula ABX₃. ABX₃ means that perovskites have a Large Cation(A), a Smaller Cation(B), and an Anion(X₃, often a halide). Their unique structure makes them incredibly efficient at converting sunlight into electricity, with recent developments reaching over 25% efficiency (25% of energy from the sun was converted into electricity), while traditional solar panels usually have 15-25% efficiency. # The Parts of Perovskite Solar Paint: ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/ad_4nxcxrcn9t3lckwlotpehauxh8ujoot8qznihdepsotrwzulgwlu5pvk46qxljopxqrndlent90m5v_lxlsgsikmsicjfxwqfthmtk7wax1sjohriu2ihlj64gd4cfxtgoz2wl0qviw.png) Perovskite-based solar paint must be applied in multiple layers. The six main layers, in order, are: the transparent conductive layer (front/top electrode), electron transport layer, perovskite absorber layer, hole transport layer, back electrode, and substrate. The transparent conductive layer functions as the front electrode. It must be transparent, to allow sunlight to pass through, and conductive, to carry the extracted electrons. Next is the electron transport layer, which extracts and transports electrons from the perovskite layer to the electrode and prevents holes from moving in the wrong direction. The perovskite absorber layer is located at the center and is made of a perovskite compound that absorbs sunlight to create electron-hole pairs (excitons). It acts as the photoactive layer where sunlight is converted into electricity. The hole transport layer lies below, which extracts and transports holes (the positive charges) to the back electrode and blocks electrons from going backward, aiding in charge separation. The back electrode then collects the holes and completes the electrical circuit, allowing current to flow through an external device. Finally, the substrate is the surface being painted (can be glass, plastic, metal, etc.) and provides structural support. # How Perovskite Solar Paint Works: Sunlight first hits a perovskite layer, and the perovskite material absorbs photons. This excites electrons from the valence band to the conduction band, creating electron-hole pairs (excitons). In perovskites, excitons require little energy to separate into electrons and holes, which improves efficiency. Electrons are pushed toward the electron transport layer and holes toward the hole transport layer. The front and back electrodes collect the charges, and because oppositely-charged electrons and holes are separated and collected on different sides, a voltage builds up between the two electrodes. When the painted solar surface is connected to a circuit, the voltage drives electrons through the wire, powering a device or charging a battery. # A Game-Changer for Clean Energy Perovskite-based photovoltaic paint could radically transform the solar energy industry. Unlike traditional silicon, which requires high temperatures and vacuum conditions for production, perovskite materials are cheap and efficient. Perovskite paint can also be applied to a wide variety of surfaces, allowing homeowners to harness solar power in places where solar panels are impossible. # The Challenges to Implementation As promising as perovskite solar paint is, several significant challenges stand in the way of widespread implementation. Current perovskite materials are highly sensitive to moisture, heat, and UV light, meaning they degrade quickly outdoors. While silicon panels can last 25 years or more, early perovskite prototypes can lose efficiency after months or just weeks. Researchers are working on protective coatings and new formulations to address this, but achieving long-term durability remains a hurdle. Most high-efficiency perovskite formulas also contain lead or other toxic heavy metals, raising concerns about environmental contamination and safe handling. Efforts to develop lead-free perovskites are ongoing (tin being a promising alternative), though they currently offer lower efficiency and a shorter lifespan. While perovskite solar paint and panels work well in laboratory settings, scaling up to commercial production is complex. A uniform coating that ensures proper perovskite crystallization must be applied over large areas, and surfaces must be treated to ensure adhesion and conductivity. In addition, regulatory bodies are still developing safety and performance standards for perovskite technologies. Gray areas remain about how these materials will be certified/recycled at the end of their lifespan. # Global Progress and Investment In the U.S., the Department of Energy recently allocated over $40 million to perovskite R&D, focusing on improving durability and scaling up production methods. Startups like SolarPaint, Oxford PV, and Saule Technologies compete to bring the first market-ready products to consumers, while well-known companies like Mercedes-Benz seek to implement solar paint in their newest vehicles. # Conclusion Perovskite-based photovoltaic paint is still in the early stages, but it represents one of the most exciting frontiers in renewable energy. If challenges like stability and toxicity can be solved, any painted surface could soon become a power source. Keep an eye on your walls—they might power the world someday. --- # Glossary ## Valence Band: - The highest range of electron energies where electrons are normally present at low energy (ground state) - Valence electrons reside in the valence shell of atoms - In any given material, atoms are packed closely together so their valence shells overlap and form the valence band - Electrons here are bound to their atoms and don’t move freely. ## Band Gap: - The energy gap between the valence band and conduction band. - Electrons must absorb enough energy (like from sunlight) to jump across this gap. - The larger the gap, the more energy it takes to jump across, and the less conductive a material is - Semiconductors like perovskites have a small gap(1-2 electron volts) and can conduct electricity if energy is added(sunlight) ## Conduction Band: - The higher energy band where electrons are free to move through the material. - Electrons in this band can carry electricity. ## Electron-hole pairs: When a photon(light) hits the perovskite, it transfers energy to an electron, exciting it from the valence band to the conduction band. - The excited electron in the conduction band moves freely and can conduct electricity. - The "hole" is the spot the electron left behind—a positive charge in the valence band. - There is now an electron-hole pair ## Exciton: - An exciton is the state where an electron and a hole are bound together, still attracted to each other by opposing charges - Formed right after light absorption, before the electron fully separates from the hole/jumps to the conduction band. - Neutral overall, so they don't conduct electricity until they break apart. - Common in some perovskites ## Front and Back Electrode: - They collect and transport electrical charges (electrons and holes) generated by sunlight. - They're like the "wires" of the solar paint that let electricity flow out into a usable circuit. - Front electrode: Lets light in and collects electrons or holes(depends on design, usually electrons) - Back electrode: Collects the opposite of what the front electrode does(back electrode usually collects holes) and helps drive current through an external circuit ## Electron transport layer: - Extracts and transports electrons to the correct electrode ## Hole transport layer: - Extracts and transports holes to the correct electrode - The transport layers guide the charges(electrons(-) and holes(+)) to the correct electrodes, helping to prevent recombination (when electrons and holes meet and cancel each other out). ## Voltage: - Voltage is defined as the electric potential difference between two points. - It tells you how much "push" electrons are getting. - Measured in volts (V) - Voltage is like water pressure in a pipe. The higher the pressure, the more push the water (electrons) is getting ## Current: - Definition: Current is the rate at which electric charge flows past a point. - Measured in amperes (A), or amps - More current = more electrons moving through the wire per second - Current is like the amount of water flowing through the pipe. The wider or faster the flow, the higher the current. ## Power: - Definition: Power is the rate at which electrical energy is used or produced - Measured in watts (W) - Formula: Power (P) = Voltage (V) × Current (I) - Power is like how much water pressure × amount of water is turning a waterwheel—how much work is being done. --- # References ###### A Khan, S., & Rahman, A. (2019). Efficiency of thin film photovoltaic paint: A brief review. International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering (IJRTE), 7(6s), 1–7\. ResearchGate. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Md-Ataur-Rahman-14/publication/332762858\_The\_efficiency\_of\_thin\_film\_photovoltaic\_paint\_A\_brief\_review/links/5cc85708a6fdcc1d49bbb13d/The-efficiency-of-thin-film-photovoltaic-paint-A-brief-review.pdf](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Md-Ataur-Rahman-14/publication/332762858%5FThe%5Fefficiency%5Fof%5Fthin%5Ffilm%5Fphotovoltaic%5Fpaint%5FA%5Fbrief%5Freview/links/5cc85708a6fdcc1d49bbb13d/The-efficiency-of-thin-film-photovoltaic-paint-A-brief-review.pdf?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Alanazi, T. I. (2023). Current spray-coating approaches to manufacture perovskite solar cells. Results in Physics, 44, 106144\. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rinp.2022.106144](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rinp.2022.106144?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Bishop, J. E., Smith, J. A., & Lidzey, D. G. (2020). Development of Spray-Coated Perovskite Solar Cells. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 12(43), 48237–48245\. [https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.0c14540](https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.0c14540?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Chowdhury, T. A., Bin Zafar, Md. A., Sajjad-Ul Islam, Md., Shahinuzzaman, M., Islam, M. A., & Khandaker, M. U. (2023). Stability of perovskite solar cells: issues and prospects. RSC Advances, 13(3), 1787–1810\. [https://doi.org/10.1039/d2ra05903g](https://doi.org/10.1039/d2ra05903g?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Group, M.-B. (2025, January 15). Mercedes-Benz Group. Mercedes-Benz Group. [https://group.mercedes-benz.com/innovations/product-innovation/technology/research-activities-2024.html](https://group.mercedes-benz.com/innovations/product-innovation/technology/research-activities-2024.html?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### [https://www.facebook.com/8MSolar. (2025, April 2). Solar Paint - Turning Any Surface into a Solar Panel (2025) | 8MSolar. 8MSolar. https://8msolar.com/solar-paint-turning-any-surface-into-a-solar-panel/](https://www.facebook.com/8MSolar.%20%282025,%20April%202%29.%20Solar%20Paint%20-%20Turning%20Any%20Surface%20into%20a%20Solar%20Panel%20%282025%29%20|%208MSolar.%208MSolar.%20https://8msolar.com/solar-paint-turning-any-surface-into-a-solar-panel/) ###### [https://www.facebook.com/canadianassociationcor. (2023, September). How Does Solar Paint Work? – A Comprehensive Guide - Canadian Association for the Club of Rome. Canadian Association for the Club of Rome. https://canadiancor.com/breaking-news/how-does-solar-paint-work-a-comprehensive-guide/](https://www.facebook.com/canadianassociationcor.%20%282023,%20September%29.%20How%20Does%20Solar%20Paint%20Work?%20%E2%80%93%20A%20Comprehensive%20Guide%20-%20Canadian%20Association%20for%20the%20Club%20of%20Rome.%20Canadian%20Association%20for%20the%20Club%20of%20Rome.%20https://canadiancor.com/breaking-news/how-does-solar-paint-work-a-comprehensive-guide/) ###### Khatoon, S., Kumar Yadav, S., Chakravorty, V., Singh, J., Bahadur Singh, R., Hasnain, M. S., & Hasnain, S. M. M. (2023). Perovskite solar cell’s efficiency, stability and scalability: A review. Materials Science for Energy Technologies, 6, 437–459\. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mset.2023.04.007](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mset.2023.04.007?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### News Release: Perovskite Technology is Scalable, But Questions Remain about the Best Methods | NREL. (2025). Nrel.gov. [https://www.nrel.gov/news/detail/press/2018/perovskite-technology-is-scalable-but-questions-remain-about-the-best-methods](https://www.nrel.gov/news/detail/press/2018/perovskite-technology-is-scalable-but-questions-remain-about-the-best-methods?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### NREL Inks a Future for Perovskites | NREL. (2025). Nrel.gov. https://www.nrel.gov/news/detail/features/2018/nrel-inks-a-future-for-perovskites ###### Padgaonkar, A. (2023). The potential of solar paint to harvest solar energy. Journal of High School Science, 7(1). [https://doi.org/10.64336/001c.73368](https://doi.org/10.64336/001c.73368?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Patel, P. (2022, December 21). Paper-Thin Solar Makes Any Surface Photovoltaic - IEEE Spectrum. Spectrum.ieee.org. [https://spectrum.ieee.org/thin-film-solar-panels](https://spectrum.ieee.org/thin-film-solar-panels?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Sargent, E. H. (2010, January 29). Infrared Optoelectronics You Can Apply With a Brush. IEEE Spectrum. [https://spectrum.ieee.org/infrared-optoelectronics-you-can-apply-with-a-brush](https://spectrum.ieee.org/infrared-optoelectronics-you-can-apply-with-a-brush?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Solar Energy Technologies Office. (2018). Perovskite Solar Cells. Energy.gov; US Department of Energy. [https://www.energy.gov/eere/solar/perovskite-solar-cells](https://www.energy.gov/eere/solar/perovskite-solar-cells?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### SolarPaint - 972VC. (2024). 972VC. [https://972vc.com/startups/solarpaint/](https://972vc.com/startups/solarpaint/?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Stability of Perovskite Solar Cells Tripled with Protective Coating. (2024, November 22). Northwestern Engineering. [https://www.mccormick.northwestern.edu/news/articles/2024/11/stability-of-perovskite-solar-cells-doubled-with-protective-coating/](https://www.mccormick.northwestern.edu/news/articles/2024/11/stability-of-perovskite-solar-cells-doubled-with-protective-coating/?ref=youthstemline.com) --- ### Aviation: Pros, Cons, and Innovations URL: https://youthstemline.com/aviation-pros-cons-and-innovations/ Last updated: 2026-06-13T00:34:52.000Z By Charlotte Lee \~ 7 Minutes --- Aviation facilitates long-distance travel, quick package delivery, and is essential to military operations. However, aviation plays a big part in daily life that often goes unappreciated. This can be both good and bad. Aviation enables quick medical transportation for operations like cross-state lung transplants, supports search and rescue operations, and creates jobs. However, it is also a significant factor in climate change, noise pollution, and airports can disproportionately affect the health and home values of residents nearby. # What is Aviation? Aviation deals with the activities related to the flight, operation, and design of aircraft. Most commonly, the aviation industry is thought of as the commercial airline industry that is travel-based and includes brands like American Airlines, United Airlines, and Emirates. ![](https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXdqKKnwJ6JxuEc6fTSPzhfVTQbFxvxoIZzo4M8u_s9R5Lgwome9TBFCTPZPc5zt9Ra8i3ByzdC54fQF6mHlCPVszvIIZzdIvPrGkyHAJENFDhzJquFR2KPKN-zR4lOvMaZVeNKs5A?key=09-2zXK6Z-7KqvICJnv-zg) New model calculates how air transport connects the world / MIT News © # The Pros of Aviation: ## Transportation and Connection- Flying is the main source of transportation for international tourists, with 58% of travelers opting to fly. This connects people to their families, enables faster trips, offers a wider range of locations, and provides remote communities access to necessities like healthcare and education. Additionally, flight connects businesses to people across the globe, allowing them to ship their goods and reach new customers. The air freight industry is a large with approximately $ 6.8 trillion worth of goods relying on air cargo to reach their destinations. It also creates package delivery services like UPS, Amazon, and FedEx. ## Essential Services– Aviation facilitates emergency operations like disaster relief, search and rescue, and medical operations. In disaster relief, aviation allows for the delivery of supplies, outside personnel, and medical aid. 35,000 tons of food and 4,800 tons of health-related vital relief cargo were delivered using aircraft in 2023\. Aircraft can also better aid in search and rescue because they are not obstructed by obstacles like difficult terrain or broken infrastructure. The equipment on search and rescue helicopters, like infrared cameras, saves lives by accelerating the process of locating survivors where time is of the utmost importance. This is why the Civil Air Patrol operates in about 90% of search and rescue missions in the US. Additionally, it is not always possible to transport the injured to medical care via a traditional ambulance. Air ambulances can reduce response time, access restricted areas, and provide life-saving care. They can also facilitate cross-state transplants where an organ may be available in one state and the receiving patient is in another. This can increase the pool and possibility for a person to receive the transplant that they need. ## Social and Cultural- Air travel connects people faster than any other transportation system. This allows for culture and traditions to spread across the globe, leading to international relations and a better appreciation for other countries. Ideas, books, and knowledge also pass through the aviation industry because every person who travels somewhere else has their unique ideas and important knowledge that they spread. ![](https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXcyCVKsf06xr7ZrYjBijOwHE9urpwcKqeFtCtFBmw0-za-OwojhHWRNxADOP-mz_tJfeIxxQNhB81SCQIfis-yCFyqxJ5uBkLnVg79zYCVET_SKuNJ0Z2aTw7f5Iz1QuvWcmax0rQ?key=09-2zXK6Z-7KqvICJnv-zg) Aviation Jobs and Careers / Technical Education Post © ## Job Creation- The aviation industry creates about 86.5 million jobs internationally. Secure jobs drive international growth because they provide people with a stable source of income that can be invested back into their country’s economy and children’s education. This is especially growing in Africa and Latin America, where the number of jobs in the aviation industry is projected to double in Africa and increase by 20 million in Latin America by 2043\. In North America alone, the industry has brought about 1.4 trillion dollars. 49.2 billion dollars were also invested in the building and renovation of airports, which created more construction. ## Fashion- Aviation Fashion is often supplemented by movies like Top Gun, The Aviator, and Catch Me If You Can, and social media. It combines practicality with fashion and has produced some of the most iconic pieces, like the Ray Ban aviator glasses. Some other notable pieces and brands are bomber jackets, pilot hats, and Aviator Nation. ![](https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXd2atCf81UGk9pxsX-xRF7UizKhWRvoxSFHp-SvNmSMZrUMMfZCwxHnNt2qhv9P4Hcfl5i0QeLcAw6HmluuR7CFjR1L_fB_Eikk9RlHnC7PmFl9cNtkHpoWWR7AON-3qFcZYZNJDg?key=09-2zXK6Z-7KqvICJnv-zg) Bomber Jacket / Top Gun Store © # Cons of Aviation: ![](https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXe9vYKsfnuRaCIDL0q0l_mC4GF3bCueetSOruABGPKHUZwoSKR-a6BIEw1PUkG8n0Ly6PscTRsp5hVaNLHB45Al2TS8JLo97B8lus8_b2OvYT76PRKbiobzisM-VUFy4181CCBAdQ?key=09-2zXK6Z-7KqvICJnv-zg) Climate change impacts / National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ## Climate Change- Because there has been an increase in flights, emissions from aviation have grown more than any other type of transportation. Airplanes release CO2 when burning fossil fuels, but they also leave vapor trails, soot, water, and gases like Nitrogen Oxides, and Sulfur dioxide. These combined create contrail cirrus or artificial clouds, which can increase greenhouse gases. While climate change is usually connected to CO2 levels, these non-CO2 effects from aircraft have contributed twice as much to global warming as aircraft CO2 emissions. ## Uneven medical disparities- Aircrafts release CO2, NOx, and SOx, which can negatively affect the people living there, as shown through the higher respiratory disease, morbidity, and mortality rates among people who live near airports. The noise pollution from the airplanes not only lowers the value of homes nearby but also has detrimental effects on residents. It can lead to stress, negative results in children’s cognitive development, and increased rates of hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and hyperactivity. # Innovations: So many advances have been made since the first airplanes. The average flight today already produces 54% less CO2 than a flight in 1990\. Innovations continue to be made to decrease CO2 emissions. ## SAFs (sustainable aviation fuels)- A lower-carbon alternative to jet fuel, first commercially used by United Airlines. SAF, or sustainable aviation fuel, has 85% lower GHG emissions. They are produced by converting renewable or waste materials—such as agricultural residues and used cooking oil—into fuel, sometimes using renewable energy in the process. This approach helps reduce both emissions and waste. ![](https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXev8MyxsGrqqXA6WXgWV70vMJorbL5mojJqg-xhVRHTP0udgUzfLTULN_fx790zRJ7IG5kBKZL2g14JjDC12fZYF9OHyQ8Osk9jv8z3Lvu-Vft0dwoR72UxkwP3-HlFWXa9OyWaaQ?key=09-2zXK6Z-7KqvICJnv-zg) NextGen Aircraft Design is Key to Aviation Sustainability / NASA © ## Recycling and Aircraft Design- Reducing fuel burn and greenhouse gas emissions are critical to minimizing the effects of climate change. This is accomplished through more efficient aircraft designs. One way of making the aircraft more efficient is with truss-based wings, as seen in the picture above. These wings produce as much lift as traditional wings, but much less drag, resulting in less fuel consumption. Another way of making the aircraft more efficient is by using recycled materials to build the plane. When made this way, aircraft are lighter, less expensive, stronger, and easier to repair. Airports are also doing their part in using recycled materials. The Galapagos Ecological Airport’s terminal is made of 80% recycled materials. It also runs entirely off of renewable energy and has its own desalination plants that allow the airport to use local seawater. This airport is the first ecologically friendly airport and has inspired other airports to be environmentally friendly, like the Bohol-Panglao Airport in the Philippines. ## Water usage- Water usage is an aspect often not associated with aviation, but aircraft need to be cleaned for hygiene, safety, and efficiency (since dirt and grime on the plane can make it heavier and increase fuel consumption). The traditional cleaning process can use up to 13,000 tons of water. However, innovations such as dry washing aircraft have lowered that amount by 95%. Dry washing, which Emirates Airlines introduced in 2016, uses little to no water. It is a liquid cleaning product that is manually applied and wiped off with a microfiber cloth. It also leaves a film on the airplane that allows planes to stay cleaner for longer and for Emirates to save 11 million liters of water a year. --- # References ###### Admin, T. O. C. (2018, April 19). Air Cargo: Facts & Figures. TOC Logistics International, LLC. https://www.toclogistics.com/air-cargo-facts-figures/ ###### Aviation-o-holic - By Kush. (2024, August 15). The Climate Change & Aviation Crisis | In 5 Minutes. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lyvshz4VOMU ###### Banke, J. (2020, April 16). NextGen Aircraft Design is Key to Aviation Sustainability - NASA. NASA. https://www.nasa.gov/aeronautics/nextgen-aircraft-design-is-key-to-aviation-sustainability/ ###### Biscontini, T. (2024). Environmental impact of aviation | EBSCO. EBSCO Information Services, Inc. | Www.ebsco.com. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/environmental-sciences/environmental-impact-aviation ###### Dodd, H. (2023). Supporting economic & social development | ATAG. Atag.org. https://atag.org/industry-topics/supporting-economic-social-development ###### Egere-Cooper, M. (2015, August 4). This airport runs on wind. CNN. https://edition.cnn.com/travel/article/galapagos-ecological-airport-wind-and-solar-power/index.html ###### Emirates showcases environment friendly aircraft cleaning technique. (n.d.). Aviationbenefits.org. https://aviationbenefits.org/newswire/2017/06/emirates-showcases-environment-friendly-aircraft-cleaning-technique/ ###### Keller, R. (2023). Social and Environmental Impacts of Commercial Aviation. Social and Environmental Impacts of Commercial Aviation ###### Lee, S. (2025). How Sustainable Aviation Innovations Create a Greener Flight. Numberanalytics.com. https://www.numberanalytics.com/blog/sustainable-aviation-innovations-greener-flight ###### SDG 6: Clean Water and Sanitation. (n.d.). Aviationbenefits.org. https://aviationbenefits.org/un-sustainable-development-goals/sdg-6-clean-water-and-sanitation/ ###### SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy. (n.d.). Aviationbenefits.org. https://aviationbenefits.org/un-sustainable-development-goals/sdg-7-affordable-and-clean-energy/ ###### SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production. (2019). Aviationbenefits.org. https://aviationbenefits.org/un-sustainable-development-goals/sdg-12-responsible-consumption-and-production/ ###### SDG 13: Climate Action. (n.d.). Aviationbenefits.org. https://aviationbenefits.org/un-sustainable-development-goals/sdg-13-climate-action/ ###### T&E. (2024, April 19). Airplane pollution. Www.transportenvironment.org. https://www.transportenvironment.org/topics/planes/airplane-pollution ###### Transportation Review. (2025, January 16). Transportation Review |The Role of Aviation in Emergency Response and Humanitarian Aid. Transportation Review. https://www.transportationreview.com/news/the-role-of-aviation-in-emergency-response-and-humanitarian-aid-nwid-636.html ###### United Airlines. (2023). Our Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) Program. United.com. https://www.united.com/en/us/fly/company/responsibility/sustainable-aviation-fuel.html --- ### The Quantum Encryption Crisis URL: https://youthstemline.com/the-quantum-encryption-crisis-understanding-the-threat-and-integrating-post-quantum-cryptography/ Last updated: 2026-06-13T00:36:32.000Z By Aashritha Shankar \~18 minutes --- > "Some experts in the field predict that the first quantum computer capable of breaking current encryption methods could be developed within the next decade. Encryption is used to prevent unauthorized access to sensitive data, from government communications to online transactions, and if encryption can be defeated, the privacy and security of individuals, organizations, and entire nations would be under threat." - **The HIPAA Journal** # Introduction The cybersecurity landscape is facing a drastic shift as the increasing power of quantum computers threatens modern encryption. Experts predict a quantum D-day (Q-day) in the next 5-10 years, when quantum computers will be sufficiently powerful to break through even the strongest of cybersecurity mechanisms. Meanwhile, few companies have begun to prepare against the threat, developing quantum resistant cybersecurity methods. However, to fully combat the threat, we need to act now. # Encryption Today Modern cryptography is dominated by two major algorithms that transform ordinary text into ciphertext: ## 1\. Rivest-Shamir-Adleman (RSA) Dating back to 1977, the RSA algorithm relies on the factoring of large numbers. RSA can be separated into two parts, a private and public key. The public key, used for encoding, is a pair of numbers (n, e)where n is the product of 2 large prime numbers (p•q=n). The value of e can be any number that is co-prime to (p-1)(q-1), meaning that the GCF of (p-1)(q-1) and e is 1\. The private key (d), used for decoding, is the reciprocal of the least common multiple of (p-1)(q-1) and e and can also be found by solving the equation 1= d • e • (p-1)(q-1) for d. For decades, RSA has provided security for digital data because large scale of (n, e) numbers in addition to the variability of e means that it is nearly impossible to decipher (p, q) from (n, e). However, quantum computing brings forth the ability to quickly factor large numbers, allowing (p, q) to be determined from just the public key. ## 2\. Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC): Since 1985, ECC algorithms have been favored over RSA’s due to their greater complexity and faster encryption, with ECC's capabilities proving to be up to ten times faster. ECC algorithms use an elliptical curve of the form y2=x3+ax+b over a finite field of not necessarily real numbers (Fp). A field Fp includes numbers from 0 to p-1, where p is prime. ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/screenshot-2025-07-22-at-3-53-46-pm-w-622.png) *Figure 1: The elliptic curve* ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/screenshot-2025-07-22-at-3-54-18-pm-w-610.png) *Figure 2: The elliptic curve over F*11 For the purpose of illustration, let us take the elliptical equation y2\=x3+13 and a field F11. *Figure 1* shows the elliptical curve while *figure 2* shows the solutions to y2 \=x3+13 (*mod 11*). The order of the curve is the number of points, including the arbitrary one at infinity, that satisfy the equation over a specific field (12 points in *figure 2*). The private key is some value k between 1 and the order of the curve. The public key can be calculated by taking one of the points, called the generator point (G), and multiplying it by *k* (kG). This system then encrypts the information using the public key (kG) and can only be decrypted by those who know k. For example, let us take a value of k=5 and the point (9,4) as the generator point (G). When we multiply 5G, we are given the point (9,7), which would be the public key. However, just given the 2 points, it is extremely difficult to find the value of *k*. ECC algorithms have long been considered nearly unbreakable due to the elliptic curve discrete logarithm problem , or the ‘ECDLP’. The ECDLP is a mathematical problem that asks: Given two points (P, Q) on an elliptic curve, what operation or algorithms could be used to find the specific constant *k* such that *k* multiplied by *P* equals *Q*? The key issue in solving this lies in point multiplication, where a tangent line is drawn to a point on the elliptical curve (P) as part of the operation. Wherever that line intersects the elliptical curve again is point Q’. When Q’ is reflected across the x-axis of the equation (not necessarily y=0), the result is Q which equates to 2P. This process is continued until KP is reached. While it is straightforward to find Q given P and K, it is nearly impossible to find K given P and Q because there is currently no known inverse operation to undo, or solve for the coefficient in point multiplication. Ultimately, RSA and ECC algorithms are what encrypt all of digital data and communication. They keep everything secure from classified government data to something as simple as a text message. Encryption allows private information to remain private and large national or international systems to continue functioning. It acts as a barrier against bad actors looking to hack or exploit this private data. Without encryption, there would be no safeguard for any data. Imagine if everything you ever put on a device, whether private photos or bank information, suddenly became public. You would no longer be able to trust digital privacy and safety if these algorithms were to fail. # A Brief History of Quantum ![](https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXew1XLuukq3ihDZeXKJcaV0Es4-W4MyROS6aCgsAPkOKqNTEaQ04vR3HigLJ_MPiJxeZEp1yTDbxuAzhQYb8KMwS9nA5gst9uQ7dGOllSsJz2FZAzCCmboAYQCrTZSCBCLoxSqO?key=2UHyrpDyxDl-nqbUzXvNhg) Timeline of quantum / Quantum computing review / Fiveable © To understand the momentous advancements in quantum computing, it is important to take a step back and examine the field’s origins as well as how quantum mechanics have evolved over time. Written in 1900 by Max Planck, the ‘Quantum Hypothesis’ explored the idea that rather than the conventionally accepted continuously flowing energy, energy was actually emitted in non-connected packets called quanta. His work laid the foundation for an exploration into what has become the field of quantum mechanics. Both Einstein’s 1905 work on the Photoelectric effect and Niels Bohr’s 1913 work on the atom further supported this claim by suggesting quantum leaps and the particle-like behaviors of a photon. In 1927, Heisenberg formulated his uncertainty principle, which stated that it is impossible to simultaneously know the position and the speed of a particle with perfect accuracy. Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen each published various works in 1935, questioning quantum mechanics via entanglement, or the influence of the state of one particle on the state of another simultaneously over great distances. Recent works have shown that entanglement can connect particles even between a satellite and the Earth. John Bell later proved entanglement by conducting experiments in search of violations of the Bell inequalities in 1964. In 1926 Schrodinger created a system of wave equations that accurately predicted the energy levels of electrons in atoms. Neumann built on this alongside Hilbert’s work to create the mathematical framework for quantum mechanics, formalizing quantum states and creating a method to understand the behavior of quantum systems. In the 1940s Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga developed their theory of Quantum Electrodynamics (QED) which described the interactions of light and matter. The 1980 conference of physicists, mathematicians, and computer scientists was the turning point from quantum theories into quantum applications, laying the foundation for all of quantum computing. While the first working laser was created in the 1950s, quantum mechanics was not explored much further untilPaul Benioff’s 1980 description of a quantum computer,the first step towards quantum computing. # Quantum Computing: What is it and how does it work? https://videopress.com/v/quPfD4oJ?resizeToParent=true&cover=true&preloadContent=metadata&useAverageColor=true *Figure 3: Entanglement of 2 particles* / Quantum explained / NIST ©https://videopress.com/v/Rdul3MjP?resizeToParent=true&cover=true&preloadContent=metadata&useAverageColor=true *Figure 4: Superposition with and without measurement* / Quantum explained / NIST © ## Quantum computing is based on two key principles: 1. Superposition: The state of being in multiple states or places at once. Superposition is mostly commonly seen with overlaps of waves, but at a quantum level can be understood as a particle being in both state 1 and state 0 at the same time. However, when measured these particles must settle at either state 1 or state 0\. The most commonly known analogy to explain this is the Schrodinger’s cat analogy: If you were to put a cat inside of a box with a substance that has an equal chance of killing or not killing the cat within an hour, then after one hour you could say that the cat is both dead and alive until you measure it, at which point it must be either dead or alive. 2. Entanglement: A phenomenon by which two particles become connected such that the fate of one affects the other, irrespective of the distance between the two. Prior to any measurement, two particles will always be in a state of superposition, meaning that the particles can be in both state 0 and state 1 at the same time. However, when measured, the state of one particle will directly affect the state of the other. This principle was proven by John Bell via the Bell inequalities. Quantum computing allows storage of more information and more efficient processes, creating opportunities to infinitely increase the rate at which many modern machines work. While they face setbacks in these developing stages, they make it possible to perform multiple simultaneous operations rather than being limited by the tunnel effect that limits most modern machines to straightforward operations. Quantum systems use qubits as the fundamental unit of information transfer instead of the traditional bit. Qubits allow for the superposition of ones and zeros making it possible for quantum computers with very few qubits to perform billions of operations per second, over a million times faster than the best computers on the market today. In addition, the entanglement of multiple qubits means that information capacity grows exponentially rather than linearly. # Compare and Contrast: Quantum Computers vs. Traditional Computers ![](https://storage.ghost.io/c/83/34/833489ef-ec5a-4a18-ac41-0819108bed89/content/images/2026/06/screenshot-2025-07-22-at-4-13-07-pm-w-946.png) # The Quantum Threat to Cryptography While current computers may not be strong enough to carry out an attack on cryptography, the emerging field of quantum computing poses a risk to all of modern encryption. ## Is the threat just theoretical? Even as an emerging technology, quantum computing poses a very real threat to cryptography. While many people would be more than willing to write it off as a threat of the future, that future may be closer than you believe. Quantum computing has shown its strength through many algorithms which could potentially result in the compromisation of sensitive data. The most prominent algorithm in regards to cryptography is Shor’s ‘Factoring Algorithm’ from 1994\. Specifically, Shor’s Factoring Algorithm (SFA) is a major threat to RSA cryptography systems. As I mentioned earlier, RSA systems rely on the creation of large numbers as the product of two prime numbers, basing security over the inability to efficiently factor those numbers. According to Thorsten Kleinjung of the University of Bonn, it would take around two years to factor N = 135066410865995223349603216278805969938881475605667027524485 14385152651060485953383394028715057190944179820728216447155137368041970396419174 304649658927425623934102086438320211037295872576235850964311056407350150818751067 6594629205563685529 475213500852879416377328533906109750544334999811150056977236 890927563 with under 2 GB of memory. Shor’s Algorithm could exponentially speed this up by working as follows: 1. Start with the large number (N) and a guess (g). If g is a factor of N or shares a factor with N then we have already found the factors. 2. If g is foreign to N, then we use the property that for any 2 prime numbers (a,b) there exists one power (n) and one multiple (m) such that an\= mb+1\. Applying this here we get gn\= mN + 1\. We can further rewrite this as (gn/2\-1)(gn/2+1)= mN. We can now change our objective from searching for values of g to searching for values of n. 3. This is where quantum computing makes a vital difference. By testing many possible values of n, the quantum system starts in a superposition of states. After attempting to solve for n using the above equation (mod N), we begin to take advantage of the fact that if gx mod(N) = r then gx+pmod(N) =r if p is the period of the equation ( gp\=1). When we utilize superposition, we test to see what values of x produce the same remainder, as the distance between those x values will be the period. 4. We can derive from this the frequency (f=1/p) 5. Here we can apply a Quantum Fourier Transform (similar to a classical Fourier Transform): When we absorb all the constructive and destructive interference of the superposition, 1/p is the remaining frequency. 6. Now that we have a candidate for p, we calculate our best guess for gp and iterate as necessary to correct quantum error. Aside from algorithms, many corporations have made recent advancements towards building quantum computers as well. As recently as June 2025, Nord Quantique, a Canadian startup, announced their breakthrough ‘bosonic qubit’ which has built in error correction. This creates the potential to produce successful, encryption breaking 1000-qubit machines by 2031, far more efficient than the previously estimated 1 million-qubits. # The ‘Harvest Now, Decrypt Later’ Tactic Another major reason why quantum mechanics is a threat to cryptography includes the ‘harvest now, decrypt later’ (HNDL) tactic. As the predicted Q-day nears (2035), threatening actors have begun to collect and store encrypted data, with the goal of decrypting it in the future with sufficiently powerful quantum machines. The attackers may not be able to decrypt the data, but they can intercept communications to steal encrypted data. While it is easy to dismiss these attacks as something that could only be effective on nation-state levels, this assumption only feeds a false sense of security. For bad actors, corporate information could enable them to threaten economic chaos and large-scale disruptions. In fact, experts believe that these attacks have become increasingly focused on businesses as they hold the people’s data and the power to create mass economic instability. Matthew Scholl, Chief of the Computer Science at NIST described the threat by saying, > "Imagine I send you a message that's top secret, and I've encrypted it using this type of encryption, and that message is going to need to stay top secret for the next 20 years. We're betting that an adversary a) hasn't captured that message somehow as we sent it over the internet, b) hasn't stored that message, and c) between today and 20 years from now will not have developed a quantum machine that could break it. This is what's called the store-and-break threat." The most concerning aspect of these HNDL attacks is that it is nearly impossible to know when your data has been stolen, until it comes into effect with the rise of quantum computing. By then, the damage will be irreversible. While not all data will be of high value over a decade from now, attackers are threatening specific data that they believe will hold long-term value. ## Over the past 10 years, incidents have arisen that resemble HNDL attacks: - In 2016, Canadian internet traffic to South Korea, was being rerouted through China - In 2020, data from many large online platforms was rerouted through Russia - A study by HP’s Wolf Security discovered that one third of the cyber attacks conducted by nation-states between 2017 and 2020 were aimed at businesses # Post Quantum Cryptography ( PQC) However, companies and nations have already begun to look into ways to protect data from quantum attacks. Post-Quantum encryption algorithms focus on encrypting data in a way that will be equally difficult for quantum machines to break as it is for the classic computer. The Deputy Secretary of US Commerce, Don Graves said, > “The advancement of quantum computing plays an essential role in reaffirming America’s status as a global technological powerhouse and driving the future of our economic security. Commerce bureaus are doing their part to ensure U.S. competitiveness in quantum, including the National Institute of Standards and Technology, which is at the forefront of this whole-of-government effort. NIST is providing invaluable expertise to develop innovative solutions to our quantum challenges, including security measures like post-quantum cryptography that organizations can start to implement to secure our post-quantum future. As this decade-long endeavor continues, we look forward to continuing Commerce’s legacy of leadership in this vital space.” One example of a potentially powerful PQC algorithm is CRYSTALS-Kyber, which the NIST declared the best for general encryption in 2022\. They added HQC to their list of PQC algorithms in 2024, giving us a grand total of five algorithms that have met the standard. The NIST has named their standards for PQCs and urges people to work towards incorporating them now, because the full shift to PQCs may take as long as developing those quantum computers will take. Their key goals in this endeavor are to not only find algorithms that are resistant to quantum computing, but to diversify the types of mathematics involved to mitigate the risk of compromised data. They search for algorithms that are both able to be easily implemented and improved so that they maintain a ‘crypto-agility’. Many companies support PQCs and believe that they will safeguard the future of cryptography. Whitfield Diffie, cryptography expert, explains that > “One of the main reasons for delayed implementation is uncertainty about what exactly needs to be implemented. Now that NIST has announced the exact standards, organizations are motivated to move forward with confidence.” Companies such as Google, Microsoft, IBM, and AWS are actively working to develop better resistance to quantum threats, helping to build some of the most powerful PQC algorithms. IBM is currently advocating for a Cryptography Bill of Materials (CBOM), a new standard to keep tabs on cryptographic assets and introduce more oversight into the system. Microsoft has become one of the founding members of the PQC Coalition, a group whose mission is to step forward and provide valuable outreach alongside education to support the shift towards PQC as the primary form of encryption. While PQCs could be a valuable resource against quantum threats, there are still setbacks that make people question the validity of the whole effort. The Supersingular Isogeny Key Exchange (SIKE) algorithm, one of the NIST finalists for the PQC standard, failed due to a successful attack by a classical computer, rendering many of the fundamental mathematical assumptions false. In addition, many of these algorithms suffer due to a lack of extensive testing and uncertainty regarding how much quantum machines will actually be able to accomplish. # Conclusion While the timeline of PQC development might be uncertain, it is imperative that we work now. Quantum computing is no longer a threat looming in the future, but a present reality with significant impacts.It is imperative that we begin shifting towards these safer systems as a community. We cannot wait until the threat has come, we need to prepare now. Rob Joyce, the Director of the National Security Administration’s Cybersecurity has stated that, > "The transition to a secured quantum computing era is a long-term intensive community effort that will require extensive collaboration between government and industry. The key is to be on this journey today and not wait until the last minute." Above all, it is crucial to recognize the threat and take action. Educating the people is the first step towards group action. Let awareness be our first line of defense. --- # References ###### Bakhtiari, M., & Mohd Aizaini Maarof. (2012). Serious Security Weakness in RSA Cryptosystem. International Journal of Computer Science Issues, 9(1). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267941681\_Serious\_Security\_Weakness\_in\_RSA\_Cryptosystem ###### Caltech. (2023a). What Is Entanglement and Why Is It Important? Caltech Science Exchange. https://scienceexchange.caltech.edu/topics/quantum-science-explained/entanglement ###### Caltech. (2023b). What Is Superposition and Why Is It Important? Caltech Science Exchange. https://scienceexchange.caltech.edu/topics/quantum-science-explained/quantum-superposition ###### Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC). (2020). Cryptobook.nakov.com. https://cryptobook.nakov.com/asymmetric-key-ciphers/elliptic-curve-cryptography-ecc ###### Elliptic curve point multiplication algorithms | Elliptic Curves Class Notes | Fiveable. (2024). Fiveable. https://library.fiveable.me/elliptic-curves/unit-8/elliptic-curve-point-multiplication-algorithms/study-guide/LCuiAxqzJAcbiQYY ###### Encyclopedia, Q.-T. Q. (2023, April 2). A Brief History of Quantum Computing. Medium. https://quantumpedia.uk/a-brief-history-of-quantum-computing-e0bbd05893d0 ###### Harvest. (2024). Harvest Now, Decrypt Later: A New Form of Attack. Keyfactor. https://www.keyfactor.com/blog/harvest-now-decrypt-later-a-new-form-of-attack/ ###### Historical context and motivation for quantum computing | Quantum Computing Class Notes | Fiveable. (2016). Fiveable. https://library.fiveable.me/quantum-computing/unit-1/historical-context-motivation-quantum-computing/study-guide/YmiqGYK4ig1skLMI ###### Hughes, O. (2025, June 25). “A first in applied physics”: Breakthrough quantum computer could consume 2,000 times less power than a supercomputer and solve problems 200 times faster. Live Science. https://www.livescience.com/technology/computing/a-first-in-applied-physics-breakthrough-quantum-computer-could-consume-2-000-times-less-power-than-a-supercomputer-and-solve-problems-200-times-faster ###### Iberdrola. (2021, April 22). ALL ABOUT QUANTUM COMPUTING. Iberdrola. http://iberdrola.com/innovation/what-is-quantum-computing ###### Nation States, Cyberconflict and the Web of Profit. (2021, April 8). HP Threat Research. https://threatresearch.ext.hp.com/web-of-profit-nation-state-report/ ###### NIST. (2022). NIST Announces First Four Quantum-Resistant Cryptographic Algorithms. NIST, 1(1). https://www.nist.gov/news-events/news/2022/07/nist-announces-first-four-quantum-resistant-cryptographic-algorithms ###### NIST. (2024, August 13). What Is Post-Quantum Cryptography? | NIST. NIST. https://www.nist.gov/cybersecurity/what-post-quantum-cryptography ###### NIST. (2025, March 18). Quantum Computing Explained | NIST. NIST. https://www.nist.gov/quantum-information-science/quantum-computing-explained ###### Osborne, M., Moskvitch, K., & Janechek, J. (2024, August 13). NIST’s post-quantum cryptography standards are here. IBM Research; IBM. https://research.ibm.com/blog/nist-pqc-standards ###### Patil, K. (2024, October 29). What You Need to Know About “Harvest-Now, Decrypt-Later” Attacks. AppViewX. https://www.appviewx.com/blogs/what-you-need-to-know-about-harvest-now-decrypt-later-attacks/ ###### Post-Quantum Cryptography Coalition |. (2025). Pqcc.org. https://pqcc.org/ ###### Quantum Algorithms: Shor’s Algorithm. (n.d.). Www.classiq.io. https://www.classiq.io/insights/quantum-algorithms-shors-algorithm ###### Quantum Computing vs Classical Computing: Key Differences | SpinQ. (2025). Spinquanta.com. https://www.spinquanta.com/news-detail/quantum-computing-vs-classical-computing-full-breakdown ###### Quantum Insider. (2020, May 26). The History of Quantum Computing You Need to Know \[2022\]. The Quantum Insider. https://thequantuminsider.com/2020/05/26/history-of-quantum-computing/ ###### SIKE – Supersingular Isogeny Key Encapsulation. (n.d.). SIKE – Supersingular Isogeny Key Encapsulation. https://sike.org/ ###### Tanguyvans. (2024, December 22). RSA and ECC encryption - Tanguyvans - Medium. Medium. https://medium.com/@tanguyvans/rsa-and-ecc-encryption-b182e67a872f ###### The Nobel Prize. (2019). The Nobel Prize in Physics 1933\. NobelPrize.org; The Nobel Prize. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1933/schrodinger/facts/ --- ### Skinny Budgets: Detrimental Cuts to Federal STEM Education URL: https://youthstemline.com/skinny-budgets-detrimental-cuts-to-federal-stem-education/ Last updated: 2026-06-13T00:39:39.000Z By Ariel Yuan \~5 minutes --- Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics. STEM. These cornerstones of development drive 69% of America’s GDP, fuel two-thirds of national jobs, and bring in 2.3 trillion dollars of tax revenue according to IEEE USA 2020\. One critical engine lies within these numbers: education. Strong STEM programs like the Every Student Succeeds Act powered generations of American workforce and provided the U.S. with an edge in global competition. As the Fiscal Year 2026 “skinny budget” jeopardizes funding at the Department of Education, it becomes crucial to protect funding that supports national progress (Haring 2025). ![](https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXfP3IF-AeIK-aTpWRkenwN25RqUADe0EfSFfXTnDUqdy_7iBVUxRNTF7HLf_h7rWll0aIgNRweuOESoCwpM8FPkFKvUq4dFhvtEhdukIQaKITKOG_13Xb-WQTvS8hTMJW-WHvSj?key=bETzB_HeZoJimFMqWyQJ_w) Graph showing funding cuts at the National Science Foundation through May 21, 2025 / New York Times # The Problem: As the United States continues to cut STEM from its federal budget, America faces barriers in empowering underserved populations and boosting national advancements. The FY 2026 federal budget reflects how national priorities are shifting away from education: In 2025: the government cut nearly five billion dollars from the National Science Foundation, which aims to increase STEM access (Acenet 2025). Additionally, 773 million dollars in research grants were cut at the NSF (Miller 2025). But why do education cuts hit STEM the most? Science and technology require hands-on labs, updated equipment, and specialized teachers. These factors demand substantial investment. If funding evaporates, so does support for minorities in STEM; programs serving Black students and those with autism have already been cut (Miller 2025). Educational budget cuts harm minorities considerably, as they often rely the most on federal funding. Other underprivileged populations, including women, are also on the chopping block. Moreover, cuts to the support for academics interfere with national interests. STEM increases America’s global competitiveness and supports domestic economies as it drives technological innovations that set America as the leader in tech. When STEM declines federally, talented innovators may relocate to another country for better funding. Without STEM education funding, America risks deepening existing inequities in education and a fall from grace in the global race for innovation. ![](https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXf_6bU_mvjyrkea1IdoX5qqCFjo98RkJM_PeXbv74jBGDssETTbH6Uomxmx8tL_I0V7JQX_Eb6L8meFg_u-YMwNGPU21CJ4-49tAtbGoq41STxBXc4DeaU6_YUvIVXjKm1QJs0q?key=bETzB_HeZoJimFMqWyQJ_w) President Obama signing the Every Student Succeeds Act into effect on Dec. 10, 2015 / USA Today # Diving Into STEM Programs: One of the most effective federal education programs is the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), which upholds education for high-need students (Office for Civil Rights 2025). Specifically, Title IV Part A of the act is a Student Support and Academic Enrichment (SSAE) program that funds state and local agencies. SSAE grants provide an estimated $1.38 billion of funding to improve learning conditions and boost technology use (OESE 2025). Despite the program’s benefits, it faces severe challenges in funding. Although the program was authorized in Congress to receive up to $1.6 billion, it only reached $1.38 billion in 2024 (Sutton 2020). Falling short of the authorized amount means less funding for each district. Even worse, the federal budget for FY 2026 dissolves the program through its consolidation with seventeen other grants. The grants will be merged into one K-12 Simplified Funding initiative, eliminating $4.5 billion of funding (Lieberman & Stone, 2025). The removal of SSAE grants means a lack of federal enforcement on STEM-related spending. Wealthier districts may still support STEM initiatives through other channels, but low-income districts relying on federal funds are left further behind. ![](https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXed1P3ZptzL-90X15iIIZSYVKqD58BUVtiCNMAGigFskDR9ZnVIgNEnZt8iLopU5XrFWr0Ix-C8f5t4g6vpxD1HHc4s7gGDkfezF6PsuHx9enKtkUeGOQlwMZVYxlZ1PL8zzgM6WQ?key=bETzB_HeZoJimFMqWyQJ_w) Students using school Chromebooks at Andrew Lewis Middle School / Virginia Department of Education Even when SSAE was active, Section 4109 of ESSA restricted funds for purchasing devices, software, or planning digital learning activities to 15% (“Title IV, Part A Statute,” 2025). In America, 92% of jobs require digital skills, and pay increases by 45% for workers who have them (National Skills Coalition 2023).The 15% cap is a deadly trap for low-income students and limits their career opportunities and economic mobility. Issues with SSAE perpetuate a cycle of inequity, entrenching students further in poverty and weakening America’s future workforce. # The Solution: Addressing the decline in SSAE programming requires a two-pronged legislative solution: 1. Revive SSAE grant and raise to authorized 1.6 billion level. 2. Lift the 15% cap on tech spending Together, these actions allow for more funding allocation to STEM. More funding directly counters cuts in STEM spending. The steps protect specialized programs funded by SSAE and close the education wealth gap. Districts will receive adequate support and decide how to prioritize STEM. Low-income districts may choose to upgrade student Chromebooks, while wealthier ones may choose to hire more STEM teachers. All states can prepare the future workforce well and maintain America’s global competitive edge. The status quo of underfunded classrooms, outdated technology, and limited opportunity leaves millions of students behind and weakens national economic foundations. The education of today is the workforce of tomorrow. We must not trade long-term growth for short-term cuts – the time to act is now. # References ###### Haring, J. (2025, May 2). Highlights of President Trump’s FY 2026 ‘Skinny Budget.’” AAF. https://www.americanactionforum.org/insight/highlights-of-president-trumps-fy- 2026-skinny-budget/ ###### Lieberman, M., & Stone, M. (2025, June 4). Trump Wants to Cut More Than 40 Federal K-12 Programs. See Which Ones. Education Week. https://www.edweek.org/policy-politics/trump-wants-to-cut-more-than-40-federal-k-12-programs-see-which-ones/2025/06. ###### Miller, K. (2025, May 22). Funding Cuts Are a ‘Gut Punch’ for STEM Education Researchers. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2025/05/22/science/trump-nsf-stem-education.html. ###### National Skills Coalition. (2023, February 6). New Report: 92% of Jobs Require Digital Skills, One-Third of Workers Have Low or No Digital Skills Due to Historic Underinvestment, Structural Inequities. https://nationalskillscoalition.org/news/press-releases/new- report-92-of-jobs-require-digital-skills-one-third-of-workers-have-low-or-no-digital-skills-due-to-historic-underinvestment-structural-inequities/. ###### Office for Civil Rights. (n.d.). Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA). U.S. Department of Education. [https://www.ed.gov/laws-and-policy/laws-preschool-grade-12-education/every-student-succeeds-act-essa.](https://www.ed.gov/laws-and-policy/laws-preschool-grade-12-education/every-student-succeeds-act-essa.?ref=youthstemline.com) ###### Office of Elementary and Secondary Education. (n.d.). Student Support and Academic Enrichment Program (Title IV, Part A). U.S. Department of Education. https://www.ed.gov/grants-and-programs/formula-grants/school-improvement/student-support-and-academic- enrichment-program#home. ###### IEEE-USA. (2020, January 29). STEM Supports Two Thirds of U.S. Jobs. [https://ieeeusa.org/stem-supports-two-thirds-of-u-s-jobs/](https://ieeeusa.org/stem-supports-two-thirds-of-u-s-jobs/?ref=youthstemline.com). Sutton, J. (2020, March 16). Student Support and Academic Enrichment (SSAE) Grant Title IV, Part A of ESSA. NFHS. https://www.nfhs.org/articles/student-support-and-academic-enrichment-ssae-grant-title-iv-part-a-of-essa. ###### Title IV, Part A Statute. (n.d.). T4PAcenter. https://t4pacenter.ed.gov/T4PAStatutes.aspx. ###### White House FY 2026 Budget Proposal Targets Education, Science, and Civil Rights Funding. (2025, May 9). Acenet. https://www.acenet.edu/News-Room/Pages/White-House-FY-2026-Budget-Proposal.aspx. ###### Zernike, K. (2025, June 3). Scientists Warn That Trump’s Cuts Will Set Off a Brain Drain.” The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2025/06/03/us/trump-federal-spending-grants-scientists-leaving.html. --- ### The Measles Outbreak: Understanding the Recent U.S. Resurgence URL: https://youthstemline.com/the-measles-outbreak-understanding-the-recent-u-s-resurgence/ Last updated: 2026-06-13T00:37:47.000Z By Aravli Paliwal \~6 minutes --- The United States is currently facing its greatest measles surge in almost thirty years, with 1200+ Americans testing positive for the disease so far this year. While some experts blame international travel, others believe vaccine hesitancy is the primary reason for this surge. However, to stay protected and stop the spread, we must first understand the science behind measles and what it takes to stay protected. # What is measles? First documented in the early 12th century, measles ran rampant for centuries with hundreds of millions infected every year. An endemic disease, measles perpetually circulated and would flare up into cyclical outbreaks every 2-3 years. According to the National Library of Medicine, > “Measles \[...\] caused more than 6 million deaths globally each year.” To put this tremendous number into perspective, 6 million annual deaths is comparable to the population of the entire Dallas-Fort Worth metroplex getting wiped out every single year. Children under 15 were most vulnerable, and it was almost expectation that kids would experience the routine fever, cough, and blotchy rash before reaching adulthood. # How the Virus Spreads Often confused with smallpox and chickenpox, measles is an airborne pathogen that attacks cells in your respiratory tract as you breathe in the disease. The virus itself is composed of a single negative-sense RNA strand that is unreadable to human cells. However, measles carries a special enzyme that converts the previously unreadable virus into a positive-sense RNA, allowing proteins in our body to replicate and spread the disease. https://www.slideteam.net/media/catalog/product/cache/1280x720/0/6/0614\_measles\_virus\_medical\_images\_for\_powerpoint\_Slide01.jpg Measles virus cell image / Slide Team © The speed at which measles hijacks cells prevents the immune system from responding immediately, and groups measles together with other fast, aggressive negative-sense RNA viruses including influenza, rabies, and ebola. Furthermore, measles is categorized as an enveloped virus. This means a lipid membrane envelops each cell and allows for easier access to infect healthy host cells. However, the measles virus exhibits one key vulnerability: soap and detergent can easily break down the fatty envelope, destroying its ability to infect. Washing your hands and clothes significantly reduces the risk of virus from ever reaching your system, but remember, because measles is primarily airborne, sanitation does not completely prevent transmission. # How does the vaccine counteract the virus? Though measles took the world by storm for centuries, in 1963 Dr. John Enders and his team developed the first measles vaccine. Often coined ‘the father of modern vaccines,’ Enders formulated the Edmonston-B strain, a killed virus vaccine. The vaccine took the live measles virus and deactivated the disease’s genetic RNA so it could not reproduce, while preserving the outer proteins of the cell so the immune system could produce antibodies to combat the virus. https://media.nature.com/lw767/magazine-assets/d41586-025-00862-1/d41586-025-00862-1\_50830852.png Measles cases in the United States / Heidi Ledford / Nature © Despite its revolutionary effects, the Edmonston-B vaccination also presented major drawbacks. Immunity wore off over time, and people even developed ‘atypical measles,’ a form of measles with heightened symptoms including higher fevers, pneumonitis, and pain not typical of regular measles. Therefore, 5 years after the initial Edmonston-B strain was drafted, in 1968 microbiologist Dr. Maurice Hilleman developed the Edmonston-Enders strain. This vaccine used an attenuated form of the 1963 Edmonston-B strain, by allowing the virus to grow in chick embryos, first. As the measles virus mutated to survive in chick cells, it slowly lost the ability to cause full-blown disease in human cells. The final product? A live virus that infected your cells enough to train your immune system, but not enough to cause the atypical disease and heightened side-effects of the 1963 Edmonston-B strain. A few years later, the MMR vaccine was created, combining defense against measles, mumps, and rubella in one shot. Two doses produced a 97% chance of protection against the diseases. Today, it is still recommended that children take two doses of the MMR vaccine; one dose as an infant, and another between 4 and 6 years old. **So why is there suddenly a spike in US measles cases?** As I write this article, there have been 1227 confirmed measles cases so far this year, with the biggest outbreak taking place in West Texas. There, 97 people have contracted the disease with two unvaccinated children dying, the first measles-related deaths in the US since 2015. Overall, this spike in cases is accredited to decreased vaccination rates since the COVID-19 pandemic. According to John Hopkins University, > “Out of 2,066 studied \[U.S.\] counties, \[in\] 1,614 counties, 78%, reported drops in vaccinations and the average county-level vaccination rate fell 93.92% pre-pandemic to 91.26% post-pandemic-an average decline of 2.67%, moving further away from the 95% herd immunity threshold to predict or limit the spread of measles.” During the COVID-19 pandemic, public health staff were pulled from routine duties like immunizations to focus on COVID testing, contact tracing, and hospital coordination. According to UNICEF USA, > “As access to health services and immunization outreach were curtailed \[due to the pandemic\], the number of children not receiving even their very first vaccinations increased in all regions. As compared with 2019, \[...\] 3 million more children missed their first measles dose." ![](https://lh7-rt.googleusercontent.com/docsz/AD_4nXcFR3c2t8Gofk0HBbvdFZvZHgzh8p37fSam1tDjGqnAFEHmgJaRz_LlNBPvfyS_h3LyFhlNGxrAipGwtG6corB3pp0RUqGzsCJg2htIjKh9mWNUxvDu7jmtfpnNSu_PhcmhmaInfw?key=7Ba7Poi45JBD_inDtPGo6Q) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention / New York Times Going forward, efforts to close the immunity gap will depend on identifying under-vaccinated populations and ensuring routine and follow-up vaccinations. As more people understand measles transmission and how the vaccine works, we will be better equipped to respond, and the risk of future outbreaks can be reduced significantly. --- # References ###### Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.-a). History of measles. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/measles/about/history.html ###### Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.). Measles cases and outbreaks. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/measles/data-research/index.html ###### Gastañaduy, P. A., Goodson, J. L., Panagiotakopoulos, L., Rota, P. A., Orenstein, W. A., & Patel, M. (2021, September 30). Measles in the 21st century: Progress toward achieving and sustaining elimination. The Journal of infectious diseases. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8482021/ ###### Libretexts. (2021, January 3). 9.8A: Positive-strand RNA viruses of animals. Biology LibreTexts. https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology\_(Boundless) ###### Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. (n.d.). Measles. Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/measles/symptoms-causes/syc-20374857 ###### Ono, A. (2010, May). Viruses and lipids. Viruses. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3187601/ ###### Robert H. Shmerling, M. (2025, July 9). Measles is making a comeback: Can we stop it?. Harvard Health. https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/measles-is-making-a-comeback-can-we-stop-it-202503063091 ###### Sabsay, K. R., & Te Velthuis, A. J. W. (2023, December 20). Negative and ambisense RNA virus ribonucleocapsids: More than protective armor. Microbiology and molecular biology reviews : MMBR. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10732063/ ---