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  • October Monthly STEM Recap: How’s It Falling?

    October Monthly STEM Recap: How’s It Falling?

    By Bela Koganti

    ~ 14 minutes

    This October, STEM has reached new heights in astronomy, medicine, and awards. So, here’s an outline of what you need to know to stay informed.

    October 1: Enceladus

    Enceladus / NASA Science ©

    Saturn already has the highest number of known moons in our solar system, with 250, but it could also become the only planet with a habitable moon. Greedy, right? The 2005-2017 Cassini-Huygens mission to Saturn revealed clefts in the surface of Enceladus (one of Saturn’s moons) that shoot out water vapor ‘plumes’ into space as a ring (dubbed the E-ring) that circles Saturn. These clefts are believed to receive their water from an ocean below Enceladus’ surface. When the Cassini spacecraft flew through the plumes as they sprayed, it collected ice grains. Since the mission, scientists have been researching these grains, and they’ve found that Enceladus’ plumes hold carbon-containing molecules like aliphatic, heterocyclic esters, alkalines, ethers, ethyl, possibly nitrogenic, and possibly oxygenic compounds. They published their most up-to-date findings this October 1. 

    To break all this down, these carbon-containing molecules basically mean that the moon Enceladus might have the potential to house life. But don’t get too excited— it’s also possible that these molecules only become organic due to radiation, where ions in Saturn’s magnetosphere chemically react with the E-ring particles. To find out the truth, the European Space Agency might send an orbiter to Enceladus to sample fresh ice. Their orbiter wouldn’t arrive till 2054, so I suppose we’ll just cross our fingers till then. 

    October 3: From Type A to Type O

    We all know and love universal blood type O, but what about those who actually have it? For kidney transplants, type-A positive, -B positive, and -AB positive patients can receive their own respective type and type-O; however, type-O patients can only receive type-O kidneys. Thus, when these other patients receive type-O kidneys, people with type-O lack donors, end up waiting two to four years longer for their kidneys, and often die during the wait. Oh, and let’s not forget that type-O patients comprise over half of the kidney waiting lists!

    Scientists from the University of British Columbia have been tirelessly studying this catastrophe for over a decade, and they published their first successful transplant this October 3. They managed to place two reactive enzymes in a type-A kidney so that the kidney changed to universal type-O. Sugars that coat organs’ blood vessels determine blood type, so they created an enzyme reaction to strip away the defining sugars. While past conversions have needed live donors and changed antibodies within patients, compromising their immune systems, this new method changes the kidney itself and uses deceased donors.

    Blood Types / Australian Academy of Science ©

    So, here’s what happened in their transplant test:

    1. Scientists converted a type-A kidney using the enzymes
    2. Placed the kidney in a deceased recipient (with the family’s permission)
    3. Days 1-2: the body showed no signs of rejecting the kidney
    4. Day 3: a few of the type-A attributes reappeared, which is a slight reaction, but nothing as severe as in previous conversions
    5. The body showed signs of tolerating the kidney anyway
    6. Success!

    October 6: 2025 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

    This year, the 2025 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine has been awarded to three people! Mary E. Brunkow, Fred Ramsdell, and Shimon Sakaguchi earned it for their advancements on ‘peripheral immune tolerance’, the mechanism that ensures the immune system doesn’t hurt the body. Essentially, peripheral immune tolerance prevents humans from having all kinds of autoimmune diseases. However, prior to these three, scientists had no real understanding of why or how this system worked. Brunkow, Ramsdell, and Sakaguchi built on each other’s findings to discover ‘regulatory T cells’, the agents behind peripheral immune tolerance.

    Nobel Prize in Medicine / Lindau Nobel Laureates ©

    Here’s how they did it:

    1. 1995: Sakaguchi debunked the popular theory of ‘central tolerance’ by discovering a new group of immune cells. 
    2. 2001: Brunkow and Ramsdell explained why a certain type of mice was particularly defenseless against autoimmune diseases. They found that strain to have a mutation in what they dubbed their ‘Foxp3’ gene, and they showed that humans have a similar gene, which also causes an autoimmune disease when mutated. 
    3. 2003: Sakaguchi showed that the Foxp3 gene dictates the growth of the cells he previously found. These cells became known as ‘regulatory T cells’, and they supervise cells in the immune system as well as the immune system’s tolerance of the human body.

    All this is awesome, but let’s see how their discovery actually impacted modern medicine. Scientists have found that regulatory T cells can actually protect tumours from the immune system, so, in this case, they are looking for a way to dismantle the cells. However, to combat autoimmune diseases, scientists can implant more regulatory T cells into the body to help prevent the immune system from attacking the body. So, just as Ann Fernholm proclaimed, “they have thus conferred the greatest benefit to humankind.”

    October 7: 2025 Nobel Prize in Physics

    Get this: another trio received the 2025 Nobel Prize in Physics! The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences bestowed the honor onto John Clarke, Michel H. Devoret, and John M. Martinis for their experiments demonstrating quantum physics within a larger system. Quantum physics, or quantum mechanics, allows tunneling, which is when particles pass through barriers. Normally, the effects of quantum mechanics become negligible once they start working with large particles, but Clarke, Devoret, and Martinis showed that tunneling can still happen in a larger system.

    Nobel Prize in Physics / Lindau Nobel Laureates ©

    Just like with our last trio, here’s how they did it: 

    1. 1984-1985: They experimented with passing a current of charged particles through a controlled circuit containing superconductors. They found that the multiple particles acted like one large particle when going through the superconductor. The quantum part of this was that the system used tunneling to go from zero-voltage to a voltage. So, they concluded that quantum mechanics can still cause tunneling in a macroscopic system.

    And why do we care? Well, Olle Eriksson, the Chair of the Nobel Committee for Physics, said, “It is wonderful to be able to celebrate the way that century-old quantum mechanics continually offers new surprises. It is also enormously useful, as quantum mechanics is the foundation of all digital technology.” I don’t know about you, but I think I’ll take his word for it.

    October 8: 2025 Nobel Prize in Chemistry

    Our LAST Nobel Prize trio of October comes in Chemistry! Susumu Kitagawa, Richard Robson, and Omar M. Yaghi received the 2025 Nobel Prize in Chemistry from the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for their ‘metal-organic frameworks (MOFs)’. These frameworks are from their new molecular construction, where carbon-based molecules link together metal ions so that the two form MOFs, which are essentially porous crystals. Scientists can then manipulate these MOFs to take in and guard particular substances. MOFs can also create chemical reactions and direct electricity. So, with these MOFs, scientists can design materials with particular functions of their choosing.

    Nobel Prize in Chemistry / Lindau Nobel Laureates ©

    You know the drill– here’s how they did it:

    1. 1989: Robson began testing the properties of atoms by combining copper molecules with four-pronged molecules, and this created porous crystals similar to MOFs. However, these MOF impersonators were unstable and needed someone to fix them.
    2. 1992-2003: Enter- Kitagawa and Yaghi. From his experiments, Kitagawa concluded that MOFs could be changed and modified as gases could run through them. Then, Yaghi made a stable MOF and showed that they could be manipulated to have new properties.

    Since their discoveries, scientists have made tons of their own unique MOFs, each equipped to solve a different problem. We can thank MOFs for giving us a safer Earth. I mean, any kind of chemical substance that can make clean water, grab carbon dioxide from the air, or produce water from desert air sounds like a good one to me. 

    October 11: The Surprising Link Between COVID-19 and Anxiety

    Covid. The word that teleports Gen-Z right back to online school in pajamas, Roblox, and Charli D’Amelio. We all know and hate it, but did we realize that it might be affecting future generations who weren’t even alive in 2020? 

    A study published on October 11 revealed that male mice who contracted COVID-19 birthed children with more anxiety-like behaviors than those of uninfected mice’s children. Basically, COVID-19 changes RNA molecules in the male’s sperm, which then dictates his children’s brain development. In female offspring specifically, their brain’s hippocampus region, which deals with behaviors including anxiety and depression, was altered. The authors of the study believe that these changes may cause increased anxiety levels.

    Okay, okay. Remember: this study was done on mice, not humans. More research is needed to see if humans will experience similar effects, but for now, we’re safe.

    October 12: Light Years Away

    “A long time ago in a galaxy far, far away…” Wait, what? A long time ago? Evidence suggesting that the closest alien civilization may be 33,000 light-years away did come out this October 12, but for the estimate to be feasible, the civilization would need to have already existed for at least 280,000 years. Yeah, that feels like a long time ago. And don’t worry about the far, far away part– I’d call 33,000 light-years pretty far. 

    At a recent meeting in Helsinki, research was shown indicating such a possibility. Here’s the criteria for a planet to have extraterrestrial life and actually sustain itself:

    1. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (so photosynthesis can work and support life)
    2. An atmosphere of at least 18% oxygen (complex animals need more oxygen, and there must be enough oxygen for fire because blacksmithing must happen to technologically advance)
    3. Average lifetime of about 10 million years (so they can exist at the same time as us)
    4. Already existed for at least 280,000 years (so civilization can develop and they can exist at the same time as us)

    Keeping these in mind, scientists have concluded that if there is an alien civilization existing at the same time as us in the same galaxy, it would have to be at least 33,000 light-years away. To put that into perspective, our Sun is about 27,000 light-years away from us. Yeah. Pretty far.

    October 20: Enteral Ventilation

    Sometimes, CPR isn’t enough to save respiratory failure. Then, patients turn to mechanical ventilation. But sometimes mechanical ventilation is too much, and the lungs end up even further damaged. Enteral ventilation, however, may just be the sweet spot. Enteral ventilation is a practice where perfluorodecalin, an exceptionally oxygen-soluble liquid, is administered through the intestine to deliver oxygen to the body while the lungs heal. Published on October 20, the first in-human study of enteral ventilation succeeded and was demonstrated to be safe. The only side effects were bloating and stomach pain, but those quickly resolved, and perfluorodecalin concentrations nearly disappeared from the bloodstream (a good thing!). 

    After this safe and tolerated success, more studies on enteral ventilation will soon develop, and lungs everywhere may be saved.

    October 20: CI Chondrite on the Moon

    Before we get into any of this moon stuff, you may be wondering what in the world (or should I say galaxy) CI Chondrite is. I’m here to help! CI Chondrite, a porous and the most water-dense meteorite, generally breaks before it can reach Earth because its properties make it so crumbly. CI Chondrite actually makes up less than one percent of all meteorites on Earth. That means it also barely ever reaches the moon. However, during their Chang’e-6 mission published on October 21, the China National Space Administration found traces of CI Chondrite dust on the moon.

    A Chondrite Meteorite

    Here’s how they did it:

    1. They looked at thousands of fragments from the Apollo Basin, a sub-basin in the South Pole-Aikten Basin that acts as a hotspot for debris since it covers one-fourth of the moon.
    2. They looked for pieces with olivine, a mineral normally in meteorites. 
    3. Then, they analyzed the olivine pieces and found seven with properties identical to CI Chondrite
    4. When analyzing, they found that the pieces did not have the chemical ratios expected for lunar debris.
    5. However, they realized that the seven fragments’ ratios did align with those of a CI Chondrite asteroid that crashed, melted, and solidified on the moon early in the solar system’s history.

    With these discoveries, the team found the first solid evidence that CI Chondrite once hit the moon and that CI Chondrite can be preserved after such a crash. Actually, they found that CI Chondrite could comprise up to 30 percent of the Moon’s meteorite debris. Additionally, their study provided evidence to help back up the theory that CI Chondrite once created water and volatiles on the Earth and Moon. More research is needed to see if it’s really true, but those missions will now be much easier with the China National Space Administration’s new process to find CI Chondrite.

    October 27: Back to the Basics

    Nope, not like the song. On October 27, in the Astrophysical Journal Letters, scientists described their findings of what they believed to be Population III stars, one of the first groups of stars in the galaxy. With the James Webb Space Telescope, they pinpointed them in LAP1-B, a cluster of stars 12 billion light-years away from Earth. Scientists believe Population III stars are some of the first stars made after the Big Bang, and they have a unique property of being a billion times brighter than and a million times the mass of our Sun. 

    Here’s why they believe their discovered stars to be Population III:

    1. Emission lines on the stars’ spectra indicated high-energy photons, which are consistent with Population III stars.
    2. Their spectra showed them to be extremely large.
    3. Their masses aligned with astronomers’ guesses for those of Population III stars.
    4. They were in LAP1-B, whose properties agree with the criteria for Population III.
      1. It’s a low hydrogen and helium environment.
      2. Its temperature can support star formation.
      3. It’s a low-mass cluster, and it had few large stars before those of Population III.
      4. It meets mathematical criteria for forming stars and keeping them alive.

    Seems pretty feasible, right? Anyways, these scientists were the first to find a group of stars that meets all criteria for being Population III, and these ancient stars can actually explain the galaxy’s construction and development. That’s all for STEM this October, but don’t worry, because this November’s looking like a great one.

    References

    Cooper, K. (2025, October 2). Saturn’s moon Enceladus is shooting out organic molecules that could help create life. Space.com. https://www.space.com/astronomy/saturn/saturns-moon-enceladus-is-shooting-out-organic-molecules-that-could-help-create-life 
    Europlanet. (2025, October 12). Closest alien civilization could be 33,000 light years away. Science Daily. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2025/10/251011105533.htm 
    Fernholm, A. (2025, October 6). Popular science background: They understood how the immune system is kept in check. Nobel Prize. https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2025/10/popular-medicineprize2025-2.pdf 
    The Florey. (2025, October 11). COVID-19 causes changes in sperm that lead to increased anxiety in offspring. The Florey. https://florey.edu.au/news/2025/10/covid-19-causes-changes-in-sperm-that-lead-to-increased-anxiety-in-offspring/ 
    Howell, E. (2017, September 15). Cassini-Huygens: Exploring Saturn’s system. Space.com. https://www.space.com/17754-cassini-huygens.html 
    Howell, E. (2025, October 27). James Webb telescope may have found the first stars in the universe, new study claims. Live Science. https://www.livescience.com/space/cosmology/james-webb-telescope-may-have-found-the-universes-first-generation-of-stars 
    Kungl. Vetenskaps-Akademien. (2025, October 7). Press release (Nobel Prize in Physics 2025). Nobel Prize. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2025/press-release/ 
    Kungl. Vetenskaps-Akademien. (2025, October 8). Press release (Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2025). Nobel Prize. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/2025/press-release/ 
    Med. (2025, October 20). Safety and tolerability of intrarectal perfluorodecalin for enteral ventilation in a first-in-human trial. Cell. https://www.cell.com/med/abstract/S2666-6340(25)00314-9 
    Nobelförsamlingen. (2025, October 6). Press release (Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2025). Nobel Prize. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2025/press-release/ 
    Starr, M. (2025, October 21). China brought something unexpected back from the far side of the Moon. Science Alert. https://www.sciencealert.com/china-brought-something-unexpected-back-from-the-far-side-of-the-moon 
    University of British Columbia. (2025, October 3). UBC enzyme technology clears first human test toward universal donor organs for transplantation. Eurek Alert. https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1100223 
  • Chemical Pollution: A Threat to Global Health and Ecosystems

    Chemical Pollution: A Threat to Global Health and Ecosystems

    By Amy Yan

    ~4 minutes

    Scientists have recently declared chemical pollution an environmental threat as severe as climate change. Specifically, chemical pollution is the contamination of air, land, or water with high levels of unnatural substances, or pollutants. As these chemical pollutants continue to quickly spread throughout the globe, the multitude of risks they pose is only growing.

    The Severity of Chemical Pollution

    The severity of chemical pollution is emphasized by the wide range of substances it encompasses and their persistence in the biosphere. Examples of chemical pollutants include volatile organic compounds (VOCs), heavy metals, air contaminants, persistent organic pollutants (POPs), pesticides, and PFAS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances), to name a few. Most of these chemicals do not break down over time; instead, they accumulate year after year, causing lasting damage to the Earth. They are found in everything from rivers to livestock, and according to the CDC, PFAS have been detected in the bloodstreams of about 97% of Americans. This is a global problem, too; a 2025 study conducted in Bihar, India, revealed that nearly 90% of children and 80% of pregnant women tested in the state had unsafe amounts of lead in their blood. Furthermore, the poor regulation of industrial waste and aging infrastructure in many regions of Africa and Southeast Asia allows toxic metals such as lead and mercury to contaminate drinking water and agricultural soil.

    PFOS (a specific type of PFAS) levels for various populations / Center for Disease Control ©

    Scientists have warned that chemical pollution has already crossed the limit for what is safe. The volume of synthetic chemicals currently in circulation has far exceeded the Earth’s capacity to manage them safely, and the sheer variety of synthetic compounds, over 350,000 globally, makes regulation nearly impossible without extensive global action.

    Effects on Health & Ecosystems

    For humans, exposure to chemical pollutants can cause cancer, sterility, developmental diseases, immune system damage, and disruption of brain and hormone function. Columbia University’s School of Public Health covered several significant ways chemical pollutants harm the body: DNA damage, genomic alterations and mutations, disrupted development in children, mitochondrial dysfunction, interference with regular bodily functions, endocrine disruption, increased susceptibility to allergies and infections, hindered neurotransmission, and impaired nervous system function.

    As for the environment, PFAS have been detected in livestock, fish, and crops, affecting food safety and biodiversity. Chemical spills pollute rivers and seas, killing aquatic life and disrupting ecosystems. Soil contaminated with pollutants becomes infertile, reducing agricultural efficiency.

    What’s Being Done

    Though serious, attempts to rectify the situation have been slow-going. The United States’ Environmental Protection Agency has recently introduced stricter drinking water standards for PFAS, with limits in the parts-per-trillion range. Several states have launched lawsuits against chemical manufacturers in order to force them to fund cleanup efforts. Meanwhile, in Europe, policymakers are moving to ban classes of harmful chemicals instead of regulating them one by one, a necessary approach given the scope of the crisis, according to scientists. The UN has begun negotiations for a plastics and associated chemicals treaty, which would be the first major international agreement to limit harmful substances since the Montreal Protocol on ozone-depleting chemicals in 1987. Moreover, researchers are in the process of developing technology aiming to destroy PFAS molecules previously thought to be indestructible.

    Mobile version of Battelle’s PFAS Annihilator technology / Battelle ©

    Even so, progress can be unsteady and quite slow. Many poorer nations lack the infrastructure to monitor chemical pollution as well as the political power to hold corporations accountable for any potential damage they cause.

    Since these chemicals can be found everywhere, phasing them out requires a great deal of effort, starting with change on a systematic scale.

    References

    Boztas, S. (2024, January 4). The race to destroy the toxic “forever chemicals” polluting our world. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2024/jan/04/the-race-to-destroy-the-toxic-forever-chemicals-polluting-our-world
    Carrington, D. (2022, January 18). Chemical pollution has passed safe limit for humanity, say scientists. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jan/18/chemical-pollution-has-passed-safe-limit-for-humanity-say-scientists
    Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024, November 12). Fast facts: Pfas in the U.S. population. ATSDR. https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/pfas/data-research/facts-stats/index.html
    Eight ways chemical pollutants harm the body. Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health. (2021, March 8). https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/news/eight-ways-chemical-pollutants-harm-body
    Gayle, D. (2025, August 6). Chemical pollution a threat comparable to climate change, scientists warn. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2025/aug/06/chemical-pollution-threat-comparable-climate-change-scientists-warn-novel-entities
    Hogue, C. (2021, December 29). Pfas destruction technologies are starting to emerge. Chemical & Engineering News. https://cen.acs.org/environment/persistent-pollutants/PFAS-destruction-technologies-starting-emerge/100/i1
    TOI. (2025, August 11). Study finds widespread lead poisoning among children and pregnant women in bihar: Patna news – times of India. The Times of India. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/study-finds-widespread-lead-poisoning-among-children-and-pregnant-women-in-bihar/articleshow/123222254.cms 
  • Would you still love me if I were a worm?

    Would you still love me if I were a worm?

    By Michelle Cheng

    ~12 minutes

    How Scientists are Using Worms to Learn About Humans

    Worms and humans could not possibly be any more different. And yet, scientists have been studying C. elegans (caenorhabditis elegans) to learn more about the human body over 70 years. These unassuming worms have aided in groundbreaking findings in medicine for human diseases such as Alzheimer’s, AIDS, and stroke.

    What makes C. elegans so valuable is not its complexity, but rather its simplicity. Because so many of its biological pathways are conserved in humans, this worm provides a uniquewindow into the fundamental processes of life, including cell division, gene regulation, neural signaling, and aging. With a transparent body, rapid life cycle, and a genetic makeup that mirrors much of our own, C. elegans has become an essential organism in modern biomedical research. Understanding how scientists use these worms can help us appreciate not just what we’ve already learned, but also the vast potential that still lies ahead.

    What is C. elegans?

    C. elegans is a free-living nematode that has become one of the most important model organisms in research. It measures approximately one millimeter in length and naturally lives in temperate soil environments, where it feeds on bacteria like e. coli. It is non-parasitic and exists in two sexes: hermaphrodites, which are capable of self-reproduction, and males, which occur at a less than 0.1% chance under normal conditions. The hermaphroditic reproductive mode allows for the maintenance of isogenic populations, which is advantageous for genetic studies.

    Anatomy of an adult C. elegans hermaphrodite / EnVivo Biosystems ©

    The adult C. elegans hermaphrodite has exactly 959 somatic cells while the adult male C. elegans has exactly 1,031 somatic cells. The worm’s relatively simple anatomy includes muscles, a nervous system, a digestive system, a reproductive system, and an excretory system. The organism develops through four larval stages before reaching adulthood, with a complete lifecycle taking just two to three weeks under laboratory conditions.

    The life cycle of C. elegans / National Institute of Health ©

    Genetically, C. elegans has a compact genome consisting of about 100 million base pairs across six chromosomes. It was the first multicellular organism to have its entire genome sequenced in 1998 in a project led by John Sulston and Bob Waterstons. Its genome is highly amenable to manipulation using a variety of modern techniques.

    Why do scientists study C. elegans specifically?

    First introduced into studies by Sydney Brenner in the 1960s to study neurological development and the nervous system, the nematode proved itself in the lab with its unique combination of genetic, anatomical, and practical features that make it exceptionally suitable for biomedical research. 

    Remarkably, around 60-70% of human disease-associated genes have counterparts in the C. elegans genome, making it an incredibly valuable model for studying human biology. Many genes responsible for critical cellular functions are evolutionarily conserved between worms and humans. Therefore, scientists can manipulate the function of these genes in C. elegans to study their roles in disease without the complexity or ethical challenges of working with human subjects or higher animals like mice or primates. 

    Analogous counterparts of the human nervous systems in C. elegans / Taylor and Francis Online ©

    Adult hermaphrodites’ cells, which remain the same in every single  worm, each of which has been identified and mapped, allowing for detailed tracking of development, differentiation, and cellular processes. Its transparent body enables real-time visualization of internal structures, including neurons, muscles, reproductive organs, and digestive tissues. The worm, which has a simple nervous system of only 302 cells, is one of the only organisms where every neural connection is known. Additionally, C. elegans has a short life cycle of two to three weeks and is easy to culture in large numbers, making it especially convenient for developmental and aging studies.

    How do scientists modify C. elegans in experiments?

    Scientists modify and study C. elegans using four primary methods: RNA interference (RNAi), CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing, transgenic techniques, and drug screening.

    Different modes of administration of dsRNAs for RNA interference / Biomed Central ©

    One of the most widely used techniques for modifying gene expression in C. elegans is RNA interference (RNAi). This method allows scientists to silence specific genes to observe the effects of their absence. In C. elegans RNAi can be easily administered by feeding worms with genetically engineered E. coli bacteria that produce double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) matching the gene of interest. Once ingested, the dsRNA activates the worm’s endogenous RNAi pathway, leading to the degradation of the corresponding messaging RNA and a reduction or elimination of the target protein. This method is highly efficient, non-invasive, and relatively easy to perform, making it ideal for large-scale genetic screens. Researchers can identify genes involved in key processes such as embryonic development, aging, metabolism, and neurodegeneration.

    The CRISPR-Cas9 system has revolutionized genetic research in C. elegans by enabling precise, targeted alterations to the genome. Scientists introduce a complex composed of the Cas9 enzyme and a guide RNA (gRNA) into the worm, which directs the Cas9 to a specific DNA sequence. Once there, Cas9 introduces a double-strand break in the DNA. The cell’s natural repair mechanisms then fix the break, and researchers can insert, delete, or replace specific DNA sequences. In C. elegans, CRISPR can create mutants mimicking  human disease alleles or study regulatory elements of genes. This method provides a level of control that surpasses RNAi, as it allows for permanent and heritable genetic modifications. Scientists often inject the CRISPR-Cas9 components directly into the gonads of adult hermaphrodites, ensuring that the genetic changes are passed onto the offspring.

    Image of the pharynx of C. elegans expressing GFP / Leica Microsystems ©

    Transgenic techniques in C. elegans insert foreign DNA into the worm’s genome to monitor gene expression, trace cell lineages, or study protein localization. One common approach is to fuse a gene of interest to a reporter gene such as green fluorescent protein (GFP). When this gene is expressed, the fluorescent tag can be visualized in living worms using fluorescence microscopy. This allows researchers to observe where and when specific genes are active, how proteins move within the cells, and how cells interact during development or disease progression. Transgenes are typically introduced via microinjection into the syncytial gonads of adult worms, leading to the formation of extrachromosomal arrays inherited by the next generation. Stable lines can also be created through CRISPR or chemical integration methods. These visual tools are particularly powerful due to the worm’s transparent body, which makes it possible to track fluorescent signals in real time throughout the entire organism.

    C. elegans is an excellent system for drug screening and environmental toxicology due to its small size, short lifespan, and genetic tractability. Researchers can test the effects of thousands of compounds quickly and cost-effectively. In these experiments, worms are exposed to chemical agents in liquid or on agar plates, and their survival, movement, reproduction, or specific cellular markers are measured to assess the biological impact. Using genetically modified strains that mimic human disease pathways, scientists can screen for drugs that alleviate symptoms or restore normal function. These tests provide an efficient first step in drug development, singling out promising candidates before moving onto mammalian models.

    The cell lineage and the programmed cell death in C. elegans / Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2002

    One of the most groundbreaking discoveries made using C. elegans was the genetic basis of programmed cell death, or apoptosis, a critical process in both development and disease. The research was led by Dr. H. Robert Horvitz at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Horvitz and his colleagues began studying cell death in C. elegans in the 1980s by tracing the fate of every cell in the worm’s body during development. They discovered that exactly 131 cells always die in the developing hermaphrodite and that this process was genetically controlled. Through genetic screening, Horvitz identified three core genes that regulated apoptosis: ced-3, ced-4, and ced-9. By inducing mutations in these genes, the researchers could either prevent or accelerate cell death in the worm. This revealed that cell death is not a passive consequence of damage, but rather an active, genetically programmed event. The mammalian counterparts of these genes, like caspases and BCL-2, were later discovered to play central roles in cancer, autoimmune diseases, and neurodegeneration, making this research foundational to modern medicine. Horvitz was awarded the 2002 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work along with Sydney Brenner and John Sulston.

    In addition, C. elegans has contributed to our understanding of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s. One major study was led by Dr. Christopher Link at the University of Colorado in the late 1990s. Link developed a transgenic C. elegans strain that expressed the human β-amyloid (Aβ) peptide in muscle cells. This is the same peptide that forms toxic plaques in the brains of Alzheimer’s patients. In the study, the researchers observed that worms expressing Aβ developed progressive paralysis as they aged, mimicking aspects of human Alzheimer’s pathology. They then used this model to screen for genetic mutations and chemical compounds that could suppress the toxic effects of Aβ. Their work identified several genes involved in protein folding and stress response that modified Aβ toxicity. This demonstrated that C. elegans could be used as a fast and cost-effective in vivo system for identifying genetic and pharmacological modifiers of Alzheimer’s disease. The worm model has since then been adapted by numerous labs worldwide to study tau protein aggregation and mitochondrial dysfunction, expanding our knowledge of neurodegenerative pathways.

    Micrographs showing visible signs of aging in C. elegans from a 2-day old adult (A) to a 7-day old adult (B) to a 13-day old adult (C) / Whitehead Institute ©

    Another major discovery made using C. elegans was the link between insulin signaling and lifespan regulation. Dr. Cynthia Kenyon at the University of California, San Francisco, led a series of experiments in the 1990s that transformed the field of aging research. Kenyon’s team discovered that a single mutation in the daf-2 gene, which encodes an insulin/IGF-1 receptor, could double the worm’s lifespan. They found that when daf-2 signaling was reduced, it activated another gene, daf-16, which promoted the expression of stress-resistance and longevity-related genes. To test this, Kenyon used genetic mutants and tracked their development and survival across generations. The C. elegans with the daf-2 mutation lived significantly longer than their wild-type counterparts and were more resistant to oxidative stress and heat. These findings provided the first clear evidence that aging could be actively regulated by specific genetic pathways rather than being a passive deterioration process. Later studies found that similar insulin/IGF-1 pathways exist in mammals, including humans, opening new therapeutic avenues for age-related diseases, diabetes, and metabolic disorders.

    So what does the future hold?

    The future of C. elegans in scientific research is remarkably promising, with its applications continually expanding as technology and genetic tools advance. With the rise of CRISPR-Cas9, optogenetics, and high-throughout screening techniques, researchers can now manipulate C. elegans with unprecedented precision to study complex biological processes such as epigenetics, gut-brain interactions, and real-time neuronal activity.
    In the coming years, C. elegans is expected to play an even greater role in personalized medicine and systems biology. Its potential as a predictive model for human gene function could aid in understanding the consequences of mutations found in patient genomes, leading to more tailored treatments. The worm’s short life cycle, fully mapped genome, and conserved biological pathways make it an ideal model for rapidly identifying new therapeutic targets and testing drugs, especially for age-related and neurodegenerative diseases. Despite its simplicity, this tiny nematode continues to open doors to complex human biology, proving that even the smallest organisms can have the biggest impact on science and medicine.

    References

    Alvarez, Javier, et al. “Modeling Alzheimer’s Disease in Caenorhabditis Elegans.” Biomedicines, vol. 10, no. 2, 1 Feb. 2022, p. 288, http://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/10/2/288/htm#B52-biomedicines-10-00288, https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines10020288.
    Apfeld, Javier, and Scott Alper. “What Can We Learn about Human Disease from the Nematode C. Elegans?” Methods in Molecular Biology (Clifton, N.J.), vol. 1706, 2018, pp. 53–75, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6391162/, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-7471-9_4.
    “C Elegans: The Early Worm Gets the Sequence.” Yourgenome.org, 2024, http://www.yourgenome.org/theme/ic-elegans-i-the-early-worm-gets-the-sequence/.
    “C. Elegans 101: A White Paper – InVivo Biosystems.” InVivo Biosystems, 26 Jan. 2024, invivobiosystems.com/disease-modeling/c-elegans-101-a-white-paper/.
    Chiu, Hui, et al. “C. Elegans as a Genetic Model to Identify Novel Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Nervous System Regeneration.” Cell Adhesion & Migration, vol. 5, no. 5, 2011, pp. 387–394, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3218605/, https://doi.org/10.4161/cam.5.5.17985.
    Edgley, Mark. “What Is Caenorhabditis Elegans and Why Work on It? – Caenorhabditis Genetics Center (CGC) – College of Biological Sciences.” Umn.edu, University of Minnesota, 2022, cgc.umn.edu/what-is-c-elegans.
    Félix, Marie-Anne. “RNA Interference in Nematodes and the Chance That Favored Sydney Brenner.” Journal of Biology, vol. 7, no. 9, 2008, p. 34, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2776389/, https://doi.org/10.1186/jbiol97.
    Link, C. D. “Expression of Human Beta-Amyloid Peptide in Transgenic Caenorhabditis Elegans.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 92, no. 20, 26 Sept. 1995, pp. 9368–9372, http://www.pnas.org/content/92/20/9368.short, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.92.20.9368.
    Riddle, Donald L, et al. “The Biological Model.” Nih.gov, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 2014, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK20086/.
    “The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2002.” NobelPrize.org, 2019, http://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2002/press-release/.
    Venkatesan, Arun, and Krishma Adatia. “Anti-NMDA-Receptor Encephalitis: From Bench to Clinic.” ACS Chemical Neuroscience, vol. 8, no. 12, 7 Nov. 2017, pp. 2586–2595, https://doi.org/10.1021/acschemneuro.7b00319.
    Wheelan, Sarah J, et al. “Human and Nematode Orthologs — Lessons from the Analysis of 1800 Human Genes and the Proteome of Caenorhabditis Elegans.” Gene, vol. 238, no. 1, Sept. 1999, pp. 163–170, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-1119(99)00298-x.
    “Whitehead Institute of MIT.” Whitehead Institute of MIT, wi.mit.edu/unusual-labmates-how-c-elegans-wormed-its-way-science-stardom.
    Wolozin, Benjamin, et al. “Watching Worms Whither: Modeling Neurodegeneration in C. Elegans.” Progress in Molecular Biology and Translational Science, vol. 100, 2011, pp. 499–514, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21377635, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384878-9.00015-7.
    “Wonderous Worms.” NIH News in Health, 3 July 2025, newsinhealth.nih.gov/2025/07/wonderous-worms. Accessed 1 Aug. 2025.
    Zhang, Siwen, et al. “Caenorhabditis Elegans as a Useful Model for Studying Aging Mutations.” Frontiers in Endocrinology, vol. 11, 5 Oct. 2020, https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2020.554994.
  • The Fall of the Big, Bad Boiler: The Latest Climate Technology Infiltrating New York City

    The Fall of the Big, Bad Boiler: The Latest Climate Technology Infiltrating New York City

    By Montserrat Tang

    ~ 9 minutes

    The Hot Hell of Boilers

    As someone born and raised in New York City (NYC), I can attest to the urgent need to upgrade the city’s climate control infrastructure. Current systems are outdated and hinder the city’s ability to meet emissions goals and address global warming; the encapsulation of this problem is the boiler. A staggering 72.9% of heating in NYC comes from fossil-fuel-burning steam boilers, one of the most carbon-intensive options available. Tenants of apartments pay for the maintenance of centralized boilers without control over the temperature, leading many to open their windows in winter to release excessive warmth. This heat and the fossil fuels used to produce it are wasted, highlighting the inefficiency and impracticality of NYC’s existing infrastructure. 

    Industrial boiler room / Controlled Combustion ©

    Even when this heat remains indoors, steam boilers are only about 80-85% efficient at burning fossil fuels. Up to a fifth of a boiler’s fuel does not generate usable heat, but burning it still releases vast quantities of pollutants like CO2, exacerbating climate change. Furthermore, boilers continue to lose efficiency during their lifetimes and require frequent maintenance and replacement. While steam boiler systems were revolutionary in the 19th century, they may now become obsolete as NYC implements a technology that could change how the world thinks about climate control.

    The Cool(ing) Mechanics of Heat Pumps

    Mechanics of an air source heat pump / U.S. Department of Energy ©

    The innovation behind heat pumps comes from the mantra of use what is given; instead of generating heat through combustion, they simply move existing warmth between two places. Most of these fully-electric pumps remain functional well below 0℃, even though it may seem like there is no warmth to be moved. This operative capacity allows them to have heating efficiencies of 300-500%! Because of this, International Energy Agency partner Yannick Monschauer estimates that “Heat pumps could bring down global CO2 emissions by half a gigaton by the end of this decade.”

    Heat pumps work by operating on the Second Law of Thermodynamics (SLOT), which states that heat will move from a hotter object to a colder one. In the wintertime, the pumps pull in outdoor air and blow it over fluids (called refrigerants) held in a closed-loop system. The air transfers warmth to the cold refrigerants through SLOT, and the heated fluids turn into gas. Heat pumps can work in freezing temperatures because these refrigerants have such unusually low boiling points, allowing them to vaporize easily; one of them, Refrigerant 12, has a boiling point of just -21.64°F!

    The hot, gaseous refrigerants move into a compressor that compacts their molecules, making them even warmer. They then flow through a coil that exposes them to indoor air, and the refrigerants release their warmth inside through SLOT. As the refrigerants cool, they condense back into liquid and pass through an expansion valve, decreasing their temperature further. They move to an outdoor coil and are ready to restart the process, continuing to warm cold homes during the winter.

    Even more significantly, heat pumps have reversing valves that switch the flow of their refrigerants. These valves allow the pumps to cool homes by pushing out warm, indoor air in the summertime. Thus, heat pumps make air conditioners, boilers, radiators, and related piping unnecessary, freeing space and alleviating material and labour costs that typically get passed on to homeowners. 

    Heat pumps in NYC

    In 2024, NYC pledged to have heat pumps provide 65% of residential heating, air conditioning, and water-heating needs by 2030. This shift would drastically reduce the city’s carbon emissions from the climate control sector, which contributed to 10% of global energy-related CO2 emissions in 2021.

    This pledge is logical both environmentally and practically: having one heat pump replace two systems saves valuable space, lowers costly installation and maintenance fees, and reduces energy demands. The NYC government realized this potential and signed a $70,000,000 contract to install 30,000 window heat pumps in NYCHA buildings, better known as public housing. Two heating companies, Midea and Gradient, will provide these units.

    In late 2023, Gradient installed 36 preliminary test units in NYCHA buildings. Most NYC steam boilers, including those in NYCHA’s current system, are powered by gas with oil reserves in case of an emergency. Gradient found that their pump can lower tenants’ heating bills by 29-62% on moderate winter days compared to gas-powered boilers. Savings are as high as 59-78% compared to oil-burning boilers. In testimonials that Gradient collected, NYCHA tenants noted the heat pumps’ impressive air filtration, heating, and operational capabilities. Midea conducted similar tests and soon plans to release its heat pump for public purchase.

    The Cold Drawbacks of Heat Pumps

    Although technological faults remain, NYC is continuing its plans to install and promote heat pumps to replace its intensive, outdated systems. For one, Midea’s upcoming pump will cost ~$3,000 per unit, greatly exceeding the combined price of ~$460 for their bestselling, single-room heating and cooling systems. This is a misleading comparison, however, because heat pumps also act as heating systems. The technology can lower electricity and fuel bills over an extended period, but the current price point makes heat pumps an unaffordable investment for many households – despite government subsidies and incentives. Even the NYC government’s bulk order of Midea and Gradient pumps averages over $2,300 per unit.

    Furthering the inaccessibility of these systems, the most advanced, aesthetically pleasing, and apartment-friendly heat pumps can only heat and cool individual rooms. This means that multiple units must be purchased, installed, and powered to service a home, and each must be replaced about every 20 years. Still, NYC’s firm stance on heat pumps indicates the climate control systems’ proven efficacy, practicality, and sustainability.

    Heat Pumps Globally, and Plans for the Future

    While technological challenges remain, NYC is continuing to deliver on its pledges. This decision on heat pumps is being made throughout the United States (US). In 2022, heat pump sales in the US significantly outpaced those of gas furnaces (a type of central heating system particularly popular in North America). This lead has continued into 2025 as more people realize that the pumps can lower fossil fuel emissions and energy bills.

    This switch is not just happening in the US; countries worldwide are beginning – or continuing – to invest in these pumps. Sales in European countries have soared in the 21st-century, an accomplishment partly attributed to friendly government policy. The country with the most pumps relative to its population, Norway, has 632 heat pumps installed for every 1,000 households (the majority of these pumps service entire houses, unlike the Midea and Gradient systems discussed above). Despite this high ownership rate, 48 pumps were purchased in Norway for every 1,000 households in 2024.

    1990-2021 Heat pump sales in Europe, by technology / European Heat Pump Association ©

    In spite of these promising statistics, heat pump sales in most economies have either slowed or slumped in recent years – particularly in Europe. Analysts suspect this is due to high interest rates, rising electricity prices, low consumer confidence, and low gas prices. While this is discouraging, pump sales and ownership rates remain higher than they were several years ago.
    In 2023, New York Governor Kathy Hochul pledged to help the U.S. Climate Alliance (USCA) install 20,000,000 pumps across the U.S. The USCA is a coalition of 24 governors representing 54% of the United States population and 57% of its economy. The bipartisan group has successfully delivered on their promises of emissions reduction, climate resilience, economic growth, energy savings, and zero-carbon electricity standards that heat pumps are engineered to meet. 

    This coalition has proved that environmental action is popular, necessary, and possible. At a time when climate policy is under question, sustainable and feasible technologies – like heat pumps – need the investment of citizens, industries, and governments alike; no matter how small the scale.

    So, how can you help? Since 2022, the US government has given a federal tax credit to citizens who install efficient heat pumps. The Energy Efficient Home Improvement Credit provides eligible homeowners up to $2,000 annually. Combined with other energy-efficient credits, US citizens can regain up to $3,200 every year. These monetary incentives offer another reason to consider switching to heat pumps, and similar policies are being enacted worldwide.

    I am proud to live in a city that rewards and encourages the sustainability of citizens, corporations, and public works. As the severity and irreversibility of global warming loom, heat pumps offer us a breezy solution to polluting climate control systems. Eventually, NYC’s infamous boiler rooms and clanging pipes may become relics of the past.

    References

    About Us. (n.d.). United States Climate Alliance. https://usclimatealliance.org/
    Azau, S. (2025, July 3). Heat pump sales 14 times greater in lead countries. European Heat Pump Association. https://www.ehpa.org/news-and-resources/press-releases/heat-pump-sales-14-times-greater-in-lead-countries/
    Bray, T. (2021, October 7). How Do Heat Pumps Work? | Heat Pumps Explained. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iQaycSD5GWE
    DeJong, K. (n.d.). The Difference Between Heat Pumps and Air Conditioners – Comparing Heat Pump Mini Splits with Cooling Only Systems. eComfort. Retrieved July 31, 2025, from https://www.ecomfort.com/stories/1310-Comparing-Heat-Pump-Mini-Splits-with-Cooling-Only-Systems.html
    Demir, H., Ulku, S., & Mobedi, M. (2013, August). A review on adsorption heat pump: Problems and solutions. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223303816_A_review_on_adsorption_heat_pump_Problems_and_solutions
    Ferrell, M. (2024, May 28). How does an air conditioner actually work? – Anna Rothschild. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6sSDXurPX-s
    Ferrell, M., & Natividad, S. (2024, June 11). Why This Window Heat Pump Is Genius. Undecided. https://undecidedmf.com/why-this-window-heat-pump-is-genius/
    Gradient Transforms Public Housing HVAC at NYCHA. (2024, June 3). Gradient. https://www.gradientcomfort.com/blogs/news/how-gradient-is-transforming-public-housing-with-innovative-window-heat-pumps
    Heat pump. (2025, July 31). Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_pump
    Midea Packaged Window Heat Pump. (n.d.). Midea HVAC. Retrieved July 31, 2025, from https://www.mideacomfort.us/packaged.html
    New York City Climate Dashboard: Energy. (2024). NYC Comptroller. https://comptroller.nyc.gov/services/for-the-public/nyc-climate-dashboard/energy/
    New York State. (n.d.). Efficient and Emission-Free, Heat Pumps Are Gaining Popularity in New York and Beyond. New York State Energy Research and Development Authority. https://www.nyserda.ny.gov/Featured-Stories/US-Heat-Pump-Sales
    New York State. (2023). Recapping Climate Week 2023. New York State Energy Research and Development Authority. https://www.nyserda.ny.gov/Featured-Stories/Recapping-Climate-Week-2023
    New York State. (2023, September 20). Governor Hochul Announces Installation of Window Heat Pumps for New York City Public Housing Residents. Governor Kathy Hochul. https://www.governor.ny.gov/news/governor-hochul-announces-installation-window-heat-pumps-new-york-city-public-housing
    New York State & ENERGY STAR. (2024). 2024 ENERGY STAR Products Partner Meeting. New York State Energy Research and Development Authority. https://cdn.shopify.com/s/files/1/0558/4925/5070/files/NYSERDA_Room_Heat_Pump_Presentation_from_2024_ENERGY_STAR_Product_Partners_Meeting.pdf?v=1736361913United States Government. (2025, May 29). Energy Efficient Home Improvement Credit | Internal Revenue Service. IRS. https://www.irs.gov/credits-deductions/energy-efficient-home-improvement-credit
  • Bringing Back the Dead: De-Extinction

    Bringing Back the Dead: De-Extinction

    By Stella Fish

    ~ 4 minutes

    Have you ever wondered what life would be like if it were possible to revive extinct animals? To see a woolly mammoth, or a dodo bird? Thanks to a new modern-day technology, these doors are being opened.

    A dire wolf is a species of canine that went extinct about 13,000 years ago, differing from the modern gray wolf in its larger body, more massive skull, and smaller brain. In 2021, a company called Colossus Biosciences was able to extract dire wolf DNA from ancient fossils. Using this DNA to find the specific dire wolf genes, the scientists made 20 edits to a gray wolf gene, the closest living relative, until they produced an animal with the same key features as a dire wolf. After creating embryos from these genes, they implanted them into surrogate canine mothers.

    Romulus and Remus, wolf pups with dire wolf genes / Colossal Biosciences ©

    Soon after this, three healthy baby wolves were born, carrying the key traits of dire wolves. These three wolves are now known as the first successful use of de-extinction, sparking much debate over whether this practice should be continued.

    The Pros of De-extinction:

    De-extinction is a powerful tool for animal conservation and ecosystem restoration. Bringing back extinct keystone species could restore degraded habitats that have withered without them, opening doors to revive grasslands and other ecosystems. Along with ecosystem restoration, keystone species could impact the climate and weather in their habitat by impacting carbon storage and moisture regulation.

    This technology could also target endangered species, allowing scientists to save and protect animals at risk. By altering extinct genes to restore genetic diversity in a threatened species, scientists could avoid the extinction of important keystone species, keeping the ecosystem’s equilibrium steady. 

    Along with these two pros, de-extinction has led to significant scientific breakthroughs, specifically in biology and genetics. If it continues to be explored, it de-extinction could lead to other discoveries and raise awareness around the importance of protecting species and biodiversity. 

    Cons of De-Extinction:

    Yet, this useful new technology also harbors many risks. Dr. Meachen, a vertebrate paleontologist and morphologist, stated that she is wary of this new process, saying,

    “I have questions. We have trouble with the wolves we have today.”

    Dr. Meachen / Des Moines University ©

    The de-extinction process is costly and requires funds that the private sector may not be able to provide, meaning governments may have to assume funding. In this case, resources used in this process would come from the government’s conservation budget, making present conservation efforts lose funding. This would mean that existing endangered species facing immediate threats would be at risk, resulting in biodiversity loss.

    Placing extinct animals back into their environments might also have drawbacks, as most extinct animals’ ecosystems have changed since they became extinct, and there is no guarantee that they will be able to adapt back. This could lead to potentially invasive species, as their habitats may lack natural predators to keep the revived population in check. Reintroducing a species might also create conflict within the ecosystem, impacting the stability and equilibrium.

    Finally, many ethical questions come with de-extinction. By providing a way to return past life to the planet, there may be consequences of falsely condoning extinction and pardoning harm to species. Many critics also believe it is not our responsibility to “play God” and create new life.

    In Conclusion:

    De-extinction has provided substantial progress in science and has opened doors to new ways to conserve animals and habitats. However, many disadvantages come with it, posing the question: should de-extinction be further used, and if so, should there be limitations to what scientists can and can’t do with the genetic engineering of extinct animals? 

    References

    Dire Wolf Digital. (2024). Dire Wolf Digital, Inc. Direwolfdigital.com. https://www.direwolfdigital.com/
    Direwolf Biology – Colossal. (2025, April 7). Colossal. https://colossal.com/direwolf/biology/
    Jarvis, B. (2025, May 7). There’s No “Undo” Button for Extinct Species. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2025/05/07/magazine/extinct-species-dire-wolf.html
    Kluger, J. (2025, April 7). The Return of the Dire Wolf. Time. https://time.com/7274542/colossal-dire-wolf/
    Zimmer, C. (2025, April 7). Scientists Revive the Dire Wolf, or Something Close. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2025/04/07/science/colossal-dire-wolf-deextinction.html
  • Mist, Crepuscular Rays, Mammatus Clouds, and More

    Mist, Crepuscular Rays, Mammatus Clouds, and More

    By Charlotte Lee

    ~ 3 minutes

    Mist

    Mist is comprised of tiny droplets of water hanging in the air. They are often white or grey and look like they are floating over land. It is formed when warmer air over water meets cooler air, which rapidly cools the warmer air. Because when the air is rapidly cooled, it turns air (invisible gas) into tiny water droplets.  It can also be formed when warm air on land meets cooler air from the ocean. The tiny droplets are particles suspended in the air due to condensation near the surface of the Earth and scatter light, allowing us to see them. Fun Fact: While fog and mist are similar, they are not the same thing. Mist tends to be less dense than fog and does not last as long.

    Crepuscular Rays / Physics Stack ©

    Crepuscular rays

    Crepuscular rays look like sunbeams raining down from a point and have alternating dark and light areas. They are often colored orange and red and are formed when sunlight shines through gaps in the clouds, often during sunrise or sunset, giving them their color. These rays are visible because the sunlight hits vapor, dust, and other particles as it passes through the clouds and has a high enough contrast between shadows and light. The particles then cause the sunlight to scatter and create distinct beams. Fun Fact: The rays are actually parallel, but an optical illusion makes them appear angled.

    Mammatus Clouds / Aero Crew News ©

    Mammatus Cloud

    Mammatus clouds are rounded pouches of cloud that hang from the underside of a larger cloud. They often form during the warmer months when cool air sinks into warmer air. Mammatus clouds get their unique look when cooler air containing ice crystals and water droplets sinks into warmer, drier air. As it descends, the moisture condenses, forming pouch-like shapes. These clouds are often associated with storms because the cooler air typically comes from cumulonimbus clouds that are connected to thunderstorms. This creates these pouches. There is an association with storms because the cooler air often comes from cumulonimbus clouds that are connected to thunderstorms. Fun Fact: The way that they are formed is the opposite of how most clouds are formed (air rising and cooling), and aircraft stay away from them because they can indicate storm activity and severe thunderstorms. 

    Other less-known phenomena

    Anticrepuscular Rays Over Ontario, Canada / USRA ©

    Anti-crepuscular rays

    These rays look like a horizontal crepuscular ray. This phenomenon appears when rays of light and shadows converge at a point opposite the sun, making the rays appear like they are diverging horizontally, even though they are parallel.

    Virga Clouds / Adobe iStock ©

    Virga clouds

    Streaks of precipitation that are falling from a cloud, but evaporate before they hit the ground. They look like wispy trails and are often found in deserts or places with higher temperatures. Although the precipitation does not reach the ground, it is often picked up by the radar as rain.

    References

    “Crepuscular Rays and Light Scattering.” Nasa.gov, NASA Earth Observatory, 17 July 2022, earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/150090/crepuscular-rays-and-light-scattering.
    “Mammatus Clouds | Center for Science Education.” Scied.ucar.edu, scied.ucar.edu/image/mammatus-clouds.
    “Mist.” Education.nationalgeographic.org, education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/mist/.

    Office, Met. “Virga Clouds.” Met Office, 21 June 2018, weather.metoffice.gov.uk/learn-about/weather/types-of-weather/clouds/other-clouds/virga
    SpatialNasir. “What’s the Difference between Cloud, Fog, Haze and Mist?” Medium, 7 Sept. 2019, geoafrikana.medium.com/whats-the-difference-between-cloud-fog-haze-and-mist-a06c7cf0cbf3. Accessed 2 Aug. 2025.
    “What Is Mist?” Earth.com, http://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/mist/.
    Witt, Derek. “Weather Word of the Week: Crepuscular Rays.” Https://Www.13abc.com, WTVG, 24 Apr. 2025, http://www.13abc.com/2025/04/24/weather-word-week-crepuscular-rays/. Accessed 2 Aug. 2025.
  • Cow Farts, Climate Change, and Coffee: The Unexpected Connection

    Cow Farts, Climate Change, and Coffee: The Unexpected Connection

    By Wanni Zhu

    ~10 minutes

    Though seemingly unrelated, cow farts, climate change, and coffee have unexpected connections. For starters, cow farts produce methane – and lots of it. In fact, a single cow can produce a massive amount of methane – usually 250-500 liters per day. Now, think of how many cows we have here on Earth (I’ll give you a hint: it’s 1.5 billion).  And while CO2 gets all the attention when it comes to climate change, methane has twice the effect on a per-unit basis.  But we can’t just blame climate change on the cows: other livestock also contribute to the greenhouse gases that warm our planet. Well, it’s a good thing that climate change is a widely known issue around the world, right? We know that these gases will cause the heating of the Earth, resulting in ice melting and oceans rising. However, while these problems may take years to manifest, other negative effects won’t be nearly as delayed. One impending problem is the devastation that this heat will bring to both weather patterns and crops. Warmer temperatures cause more evaporation, meaning more water in the atmosphere and more storms. Many plants, coffee included, can’t grow in these changing and unstable climates. And while scientists are doing all that they can to fix these problems, individual citizens are unlikely to act unless they understand the full extent of what is going on. 

    What Is Climate Change?

    Climate change is a universal issue backed by scientific evidence and recognized by most of the public. The Earth is warming, and rapidly at that. According to NASA, the average global temperature on Earth has increased by at least 1.1° Celsius (1.9° Fahrenheit) since 1880, and the majority of the warming has occurred since 1975, at a rate of roughly 0.15 to 0.20°C per decade. It may not seem like much, but the environment is not accustomed to adapting quickly, and if this goes on, the results could be devastating.

    Greenhouse Gases

    Greenhouse gases – let’s call them GHGs for short – are essential for our survival, but could very well be the key to our doom. The most common GHGs include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. They absorb heat from the Sun and trap the warmth, preventing it from escaping into space. It’s the reason why life on Earth is possible: just like their name, these gases basically function as the glass in a greenhouse, raising the temperature so that we can thrive.

    But greenhouses can also get too hot. The more gases in the atmosphere, the more effective the heat-trapping process is. This excess heat-trapping is precisely what has been occurring over the past few decades, especially since the Industrial Revolution

    Left: Radiative forcing relative to 1750 due to the long-lived greenhouse gases CO2, methane, nitrous oxide and the synthetic greenhouse gases, expressed as watts per metre squared. Right: Global mean CO2 concentration and global mean greenhouse gas concentrations expressed as CO2-e (ppm). CO2-e is calculated from the atmospheric concentrations of CO2, methane, nitrous oxide and the suite of synthetic greenhouse gases. / Bureau of Meteorology ©

    So, what is causing the surplus of GHGs warming our Earth?

    One cause is transportation, which accounts for 14% of GHGs. Cars, buses, trains, airplanes – most of them use gasoline, diesel, or jet fuel to function. Burning these materials releases many harmful gases, the most relevant of them carbon dioxide, methane, or nitrous oxide. In some countries, like the US, transportation may be the leading cause of GHG emissions. However, there are many ways to combat these effects. You’ve most likely heard that walking and public transportation will reduce emissions, and they can! Even electric vehicles will help if you’re using clean electricity. Additionally, biofuels and hydrogen can replace fossil fuels in aviation and shipping.

    Another significant cause is electricity and heat production, which accounts for a fourth of total GHGs alone. These processes still rely heavily on burning fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas. Now that more and more homes and buildings are being constructed, there is a higher electricity demand than before. As a result, more fuel is burned – unless we switch to cleaner sources such as wind, solar, or hydro power. Transmission losses (electricity lost as it travels over power lines) require extra generation, further increasing emissions. Therefore, improving efficiency in buildings and the power grid could reduce the demand and associated GHGs.

    Buildings can cause around 6-7% of GHG emissions. The production of materials like cement, steel, and aluminum all release gases such as carbon dioxide, and use the process of burning fossil fuels. According to the BBC, cement production contributes 8% of global GHGs. Not to mention, transporting those materials and the use of heavy machinery and equipment while building them also adds to emissions. 

    These are all large and well-known reasons that contribute to GHG emissions, so let’s take a look at something lesser known. Agriculture.

    What About Cows?

    Let’s be honest: your answer to the question about major sources of GHGs was probably not cows. But, in truth, these adorable creatures that we raise account for around 14.5 percent of greenhouse gases that warm our planet. Of course, it’s not cows alone: other livestock, including chickens, horses, pigs, and more, are all included in that percentage. We’re looking at cows specifically because a breakthrough with them could lead to resulting solutions with the other animals, and cows are large and easy to work with. 

    Cows make methane in two ways: through their digestive process and their waste.  They are part of a group of animals called ruminants, with four distinct stomach chambers. The first is called the rumen, a home for microorganisms that break down the starch and sugar from plants. The next chamber is called the reticulum, where hard-to-digest plant materials are stored. The next chamber is called the omasum, which mechanically breaks the food down further. Finally, the last chamber is called the abomasum, which absorbs the nutrients from the food. 

    In the rumen, a process called enteric fermentation takes place. This is where the previously stated microorganisms and bacteria break down complex carbohydrates and turn them into sugars. The resulting products include volatile fatty acids (used as a major energy source for the cows), as well as GHGs such as carbon dioxide and methane. The gases are released from the cows either as burps or farts.

    What Are We Doing About It?

    Trend Hunter / INTA ©

    Scientists are attempting to find the most effective solution to this large problem. There have been many different approaches to this issue, some of which are below.

    One method that has been used is seaweed in the cow feed. A 2018 study focused on mixing a seaweed species called Asparagopsis armata with hay and small amounts of molasses. Animal science professor Ermias Kebreab says they’re hoping that the seaweed can inhibit an enzyme that’s involved in producing methane in a cow’s gut, a chemical reaction discovered by researchers in Australia. After a day of eating this feed, the cow’s methane emission dropped by a drastic 50%. However, they also discovered a small dent in the amount of food consumed, as well as milk produced, due to the seaweed’s ocean smell. The next steps of this experiment are to find ways so the cows don’t notice the seaweed, and plan an experiment to use beef cattle instead of dairy cattle. Though there is still a long way before this can be implemented on a large scale, even the smallest start can lead to a bigger solution.

    Another study from 2019 discovered that selective breeding can lead to a “cleaner cow.”  Project’s leaders and co-author Professor John Williams says: “What we showed is that the level and type of methane-producing microbes in the cow is to a large extent controlled by the cow’s genetic makeup.” By selecting cattle that produce less methane than their counterparts, it may be possible to create a livestock industry that generates fewer GHGs. However, the breeding will also depend on other desired characteristics, such as meat quality, milk, and disease resistance.

    Finally, Argentina’s National Institute of Agricultural Technology (INTA) created the cow-fart-backpack (the picture shown above). This device captures the methane from these cows through a tube in their skin, which scientists claim is painless. The gas is then condensed and ready to provide power for the farm. By utilizing this gas for power, farms would consume less purchased gas and thereby reduce the total emissions.

    Where Does Coffee Come In?

    Even with all these solutions, climate change is still one of the biggest issues out there. One common outcome that you may have heard of is the rising ocean levels. Because of the rapid heating, the northern and southern reaches of the planet are warming faster than any area on Earth, with the temperatures there rising twice as much as elsewhere. This damages the fragile ecosystems there, leaving less space for animals such as polar bears, seals, and penguins to venture. Not only that, but the sheer amount of ice that is melting each year has increased ocean levels drastically. According to NASA, the ocean levels have risen 10.1 centimeters since 1992. 

    But there’s another effect that’s less heard of. Agriculture will also be greatly impacted by climate change, as some plants need very specific temperatures and weather conditions to grow. 

    Let’s take a closer look at coffee.

    Some plants need very specific temperatures and weather conditions to grow, and now that it’s all changing, the locations where the plants grow would need to change with it. For example, the coffee plant grows in temperatures of around 15-24 C, or 60-70 F. Areas such as Hawaii, Africa, and Brazil are all large coffee exporters, but if the temperatures keep rising, coffee would cease to grow in those places. Coffee plants are highly sensitive to temperature and moisture changes, and stress leads to lower yields and flavor quality. But, it’s okay, right? We can just plant coffee in different areas that are now suitable for coffee growth!

    Not quite. Coffee takes 3-4 years to grow, and needs to be processed after. Processing plants will take even longer to build, not to mention the cost and GHG emissions. So, in that time, global coffee supply shortages would lead to higher coffee prices, affecting consumers and businesses. Millions of jobs in farming, processing, transport, and retail depend on coffee, leading to unemployment in producing regions. Countries that rely on coffee exports would suffer major losses in GDP and stability.

    Now think of this on a large scale. Not just coffee, but other plants as well. The world would be in chaos: jobs lost, prices increased drastically, and businesses shut down. These are the results of climate change.

    Conclusion

    Ultimately, climate change is affecting our world fast. With the temperatures rising each year and GHG emissions growing, the world is in dire need of a solution. Though there isn’t a single “correct” fix to this problem, everything that we do to prevent it counts. The effects of climate change can be disastrous – environments are being destroyed, oceans are rising, and plants are dying. But…if everyone helps, if everyone contributes, and understands just how dangerous and volatile climate change can be…perhaps we can prevent the problem that we are causing in the first place.

    References

    Center for Climate and Energy Solutions. 2019. “Main Greenhouse Gases | Center for Climate and Energy
    Solutions.” Center for Climate and Energy Solutions. June 6, 2019.
    https://www.c2es.org/content/main-greenhouse-gases/.
    NASA. 2022. “World of Change: Global Temperatures.” Earth Observatory. NASA Earth Observatory. 2022. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/world-of-change/global-temperatures.
    Okshevsky, Mira. 2020. “Cows, Methane, and Climate Change.” Let’s Talk Science. March 15, 2020. https://letstalkscience.ca/educational-resources/stem-in-context/cows-methane-and-climate-change.
    “Potential for Reduced Methane from Cows.” 2019. ScienceDaily. 2019. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/07/190708112514.htm.
    Rodgers, Lucy. 2018. “Climate Change: The Massive CO2 Emitter You May Not Know About.” BBC News, December 17, 2018. https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-46455844.
    “Surf and Turf: To Reduce Gas Emissions from Cows, Scientists Look to the Ocean.” n.d. NPR.org. https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2018/07/03/623645396/surf-and-turf-to-reduce-gas-emissions-from-cows-scientists-look-to-the-ocean.
    “The Causes of Climate Change.” Edited by Kalina Velev. NASA. October 23, 2024. https://science.nasa.gov/climate-change/causes/.