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  • Beneath The Skin: The Alarming Reality of Parasitic Worms

    Beneath The Skin: The Alarming Reality of Parasitic Worms

    By Katherine Johnson

    ~13 minutes

    Have you ever had a parasite? Maybe you ate an unwashed fruit, had an open wound, or even stepped on something you shouldn’t have. Nevertheless, parasites are everywhere and more common than you may think. In this article, we’ll go over parasites as a whole; including a review on what they are, theories on evolution, and a deep dive into a specific parasite. Overall, parasitism is one of the most complicated relationships seen in nature,  and whilst it’d take a mountain of explanation to understand it all, hopefully this article can deepen your current understanding and offer some insightful information.

    What Are Parasites?

    By definition, parasites are organisms that live off of another organism or “host”. There are many “species” or categories of parasites, ranging from utterly harmless to ultimately fatal. Some of the more common parasites you may have heard of include tapeworm, roundworm, pinworm, etc. While there are countless ways to get infected, tapeworm for example, only needs its eggs  to be accidentally swallowed . Fortunately such cases  are rare in developed countries like the U.S. Additionally, these parasites are objectively easy to get rid of. Albendazole is a very common medication used to treat parasitic worm infections, and taking a few doses should cure the disease. Oftentimes, albendazole is crucial in mass drug administration as an attempt to control and lessen cases of infection, especially within developing countries.

    So what happens when you get a parasite? Well, it is impossible to give one direct answer. Say you are infected with a common intestinal worm, perhaps unknowingly you have ingested  pinworm eggs. Some symptoms might include gastrointestinal issues, vomiting, abdominal pain, extreme itching, and even irritation, all common with other intestinal parasites. You go to the doctor, get some blood work, and thankfully they diagnose you, treat you with albendazole, and everything is back to normal. But what about when it’s not that simple?

    Some parasites are much more dangerous, and at times, even incurable. Malaria, a very widely known global health concern, is a single-celled parasite spread by mosquitos. In some cases, such as that of Plasmodium falciparum (the most dangerous type of malaria) once infected, it can take only 24 hours to kill. While there are treatments and improvements in the medical world for malaria, developing countries are still struggling with the disease to this day. Another deadly parasite is brain-eating amoeba or Naegleria Fowleri. Found in infected waters such as lakes, this parasite enters the brain through the nose while you are swimming. While it is extremely rare, fatality rates are nearly 100 percent. Naegleria fowleri destroys the brain tissue causing swelling and oftentimes complete coma. Once the symptoms set in within a week of infection, it will take roughly five days until death. Unfortunately, there are countless more of these dangerous parasites including schistosomes, which we will cover later. However for now, let’s see how these parasites came to be.

    The Evolution of Parasites

    Though there are countless theories determining the exact evolutionary path or origin of parasites, there is no factually known truth. Overall, the study of evolution of organisms is an extremely difficult and unending task. To truly form a complete cycle of evolution you have to not only know the events that took place, but their total effect and order., Unfortunately we cannot go back into the past, but, there are some pretty strong theories regarding parasite evolution.

    It is safe to presume that parasites arose millions of years ago from previously freeliving organisms. Many researchers believe that the majority of present-day parasitic life forms evolved after being ingested by their host. This theory, called ‘freeliving ancestors’, describes how freeliving organisms evolved to survive within their host by gaining their needed nutrients from within the host’s stomach. As mentioned earlier, some of the most common or well known parasites, such as the tapeworm, show stark similarities with this theory.

    On the other hand, another well known potential theory is that the parasite-host relationship may have formed from a predator-prey relationship, where the parasite acts as the predator. Ancestors of such parasites have been found to have collected similar nutrients from their prey as parasites collect from their host. This theory is common in ectoparasitism, in which the parasite lives within, or on, the host’s skin.

    Another theory to consider are facultative parasites. This represents the “hybrid” of parasitic characteristics and regular freeliving organisms. They provide the possible transitional state, or the “evolutionary stepping stones” within the transition to full blown parasitism. Facultative parasites can survive both on their own, and within, or on, a host. While dissecting facultative parasites as a whole calls for a separate discussion, it is important to understand a few things, for one: phenotypic plasticity. This refers to the flexibility of an organism’s phenotype, or observable characteristics. An organism with strong phenotypic plasticity has the ability to adapt more fluidly to its environment. For example, a facultative parasite may increase survival under specific conditions and overtime adapt on favorable heritable variations (in this case: parasites), also known as the Baldwin effect. Similar to the Baldwin effect, genetic assimilation, which represents phenotypic plasticity under specific conditions as well, is more set in place. This implies that eventually the organism’s plasticity will decrease, and the trait will no longer need the environmental trigger for it to show as it becomes fixed or stuck in place.

    Once again, even with immense research and evidence, the exact path of evolution for parasites is difficult to place. Even with potentially knowing events that were detrimental to the evolutionary path, we still cannot specifically know which traits may have caused what. An interesting metaphor would be to think about how “noses might not have been selected to carry glasses.” While the characteristic of having a nose is useful for wearing glasses, it certainly didn’t evolve for that reason. Likewise, just because an organism has a quality that relates to parasitism, it may have nothing to do with it. For example, some traits we may have thought were specific to the evolution of parasites, have been found in completely different freeliving organisms with no real connection. Additionally, a parasitic trait can evolve in different ways as well. For example, the image below demonstrates the inverse relationship between various characteristics and  parasitism.

    Evolution: Causality and the Origin of Parasitism / Jan Janouskovec / ScienceDirect ©

    Parasites: Today’s World

    There are many misconceptions when it comes to parasites. Admittedly, parasites are utterly terrifying, so intense phobias and even psychosis aren’t farfetched. However, these false beliefs can lead to incorrect, useless, and even sometimes harmful homemade “treatments”. For example, have you ever heard of a parasite cleanse? A parasite cleanse is a form of detoxing the body through supplements, diets, or drinks. They frequently include different types of herbs, oils, and other supplements. These “treatments” are not medically necessary nor are they FDA approved. There is no evidence of these cleanses treating any parasites, and sometimes they can be harmful to your gut, causing other issues. If you believe you may be infected with a parasite, it is important to get proper medical help. That being said, let’s look into the current state of the medical world in relation to parasites.

    According to the World Health Organization, or WHO, approximately one quarter of the world’s population is infected with some type of intestinal worm, with even higher rates in developing countries. Although this statistic might seem concerning, there have been many improvements in the medical world, as well as constant research being done. For one, the mass drug administration system, as mentioned once earlier, is seeing vast improvements with providing ample medicine and treatments to those who need it. In particular, nanotechnology, the method of manipulating matter at the near-atomic scale, has helped tremendously in targeted drug delivery. Deeper research regarding genes and interactions of parasites with the host, is  assisting in the making of treatments and vaccines. Whilst parasitic infections remain a problem today, there is much hope to help the issue decline within the future.

    Schistosomes

    By now you have read through much information about parasites, specifically what they are, their evolution, and even some medical overviews. So now let’s take a deep dive about a specific parasite: Schistosomes. Schistosomes are a type of parasitic flatworm, distinctively known as blood flukes, and are the root of a terrible, oftentimes chronic disease called schistosomiasis. So what do you need to know?

    Schistosoma are believed to have originated in the supercontinent of Gondwana around 120 million years ago, from their early parasitic ancestors, which primarily infected hippos. Interestingly, they began their life by primarily infecting a snail, parallel to their life cycle today, which you’ll read about later. From that point, through host migration, they traveled to Asia and Africa, where they are primarily found today. Eventually, the parasite evolved into other forms, more specifically schistosoma, predominantly infecting humans.

    The life cycle of schistosoma has many stages, including two hosts. First, eggs are passed down from the previous host, through urine or stool, into water. These eggs, which then hatch into larvae, must now find their first host: a snail. Within these snails, the schistosoma continues to mature, releasing once again into water. As you are harmlessly swimming or bathing in seemingly clean waters, the schistosoma penetrates the skin, entering and infecting your body. From that point, they travel to your liver, where they fully mature into adult worms, and travel  to the veins in the intestines or bladder to mate soon after. At this point you could have been infected for potentially months. Other than a slight skin irritation where they had entered your body previously, you don’t start showing symptoms until you get Katayama fever or the acute stage of schistosomiasis, lasting for a couple weeks.

    Katayama fever is a hypersensitivity or immune complex reaction to the eggs being deposited in the body’s tissue. Symptoms of this stage are categorized by fever, abdominal pain, cough, muscle and joint pain, and so much more. At this point the disease is still possibly reversible. Treatments such as preziquantel are common for treating this disease and can help those infected formulate a full recovery. However, some people don’t necessarily show symptoms until it’s too late. For instance, in 2021 an estimated 176.1 million out of 251.4 million people were not treated on time.

    The next stage is chronic Schistosomiasis. While technically the worms can be killed through specific treatment, they can cause irreversible organ damage with life long affects. Furthermore, the long lifespan of the adult worms can make it exceedingly difficult to treat. These worms can live in the body for over a decade, laying hundreds of eggs daily. While these eggs are produced in order to be released in the urine and stool, they frequently get trapped in the tissues of your organs. As they get trapped, the body’s immune response causes extreme inflammation in the organs, primarily the liver, bladder, and intestines. Alongside many other implications due to the lodging of the eggs, such as fibrosis (the formation of scar tissue), can lead to organ failure, increased risk of cancer, and ultimately death.

    Essentials of Glycobiology [Internet] 4th edition / Figure 43.7 / National Library of Medicine ©

    Schistosomiasis: Potential Future

    Those with schistosomiasis often spend their lives in and out of hospitals. As time goes on, their bodies begin shutting down or falling victim to other illnesses. Schistosomiasis is an extremely hard disease to deal with, infecting more than 200 million people worldwide. Developing countries in Africa and Asia struggle tremendously, especially without access to clean water, or the inability to receive necessary treatment.

    Though the probability of completely eradicating  the disease within the near future is low, thankfully the number of infected is generally decreasing. As immense efforts are being made globally, better access to medication, as well as sanitary environments are readily being provided. Additionally, extensive amounts of research are helping find out more about schistosoma to better our treatments and potentially develop a vaccine.

    Conclusions

    Overall, while parasitic infections are fortunately majority of the time treatable, there is so much more to them than what one might think. In this article we were able to cover plentiful information about parasites, their evolutionary history, and the terrifying reality of Schistosomiasis, so with this knowledge, it is time to make a real impact. Below, there is a link to a GoFundMe page, where you can help Recy Abellanosa, a mother, wife, and teacher who is struggling with the effects of schistosomiasis. By donating, you will be able to take some of the financial burden off her family as she fights the disease. As a final remark, I highly encourage you to learn more about these organisms, as well as keep yourself and others around you educated in the current scientific and medical world.

    Link to GoFundMe:

    https://www.gofundme.com/f/support-recys-urgent-medical-needs

    References

    Baker, J. R. (1994). The origins of parasitism in the protists. International Journal for Parasitology, 24(8), 1131–1137. https://doi.org/10.1016/0020-7519(94)90187-2Luong, L. T., & Mathot, K. J. (2019). Facultative parasites as evolutionary stepping-stones towards parasitic lifestyles. Biology Letters, 15(4), 20190058. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2019.0058
    Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2019). CDC – DPDx – Schistosomiasis Infection. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; CDC. https://www.cdc.gov/dpdx/schistosomiasis/index.html
    Cleveland Clinic. (2023, April 14). Parasites. Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/24911-parasites
    Gobbi, F., Tamarozzi, F., Buonfrate, D., van Lieshout, L., Bisoffi, Z., & Bottieau, E. (2020). New Insights on Acute and Chronic Schistosomiasis: Do We Need a Redefinition? Trends in Parasitology, 36(8), 660–667. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2020.05.009
    ‌Image:Life Cycle of Schistosoma. (n.d.). Merck Manual Consumer Version. https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/multimedia/image/life-cycle-of-schistosoma
    Janouskovec, J., & Keeling, P. J. (2016). Evolution: Causality and the Origin of Parasitism. Current Biology, 26(4), R174–R177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.12.057
    Kochin, B. F., Bull, J. J., & Antia, R. (2010). Parasite evolution and life history theory. PLoS biology, 8(10), e1000524. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1000524
    Pion, S. D. S., Chesnais, C. B., Bopda, J., Louya, F., Fischer, P. U., Majewski, A. C., Weil, G. J., Boussinesq, M., & Missamou, F. (2015). The impact of two semiannual treatments with albendazole alone on lymphatic filariasis and soil-transmitted helminth infections: a community-based study in the Republic of Congo. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 92(5), 959–966. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.14-0661
    Schistosomiasis. (n.d.). Www.who.int. https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/topics/schistosomiasis
    Tiwari, R., Gupta, R. P., Singh, V. K., Kumar, A., None Rajneesh, Prasoon Madhukar, Sundar, S., Gautam, V., & Kumar, R. (2023). Nanotechnology-Based Strategies in Parasitic Disease Management: From Prevention to Diagnosis and Treatment. ACS Omega, 8(45), 42014–42027. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.3c04587
    WHO. (2024, December 11). Malaria. World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/malaria
    World Health Organization. (2023, February 1). Schistosomiasis. Who.int; World Health Organization: WHO. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/schistosomiasis
  • My Experience Shadowing an Oncologist

    My Experience Shadowing an Oncologist

    By Aravli Paliwal

    ~ 9 minutes

    Earlier this summer, I was graciously given the opportunity to shadow a private-practice oncologist/hematologist in the Dallas area. There, I gained a clear understanding of what a career in STEM entails, learned how doctors approach complex cancer cases, and secured an inside view into the emotionally taxing yet deeply rewarding work of an oncologist.

    What does an Oncologist’s career look like?

    At the ground level, an oncologist’s job involves diagnosing and treating cancer. They play a central role in administering cancer treatments and developing long-term plans. There are three main types of oncologists:

    • Medical Oncologist: Dr. Nair, whom I shadowed, practices as a medical oncologist. These doctors use targeted therapies like chemotherapy and immunotherapy to treat cancers.
    • Surgical Oncologist: Surgical oncologists perform biopsies and remove tumors through surgical procedures. Usually, after a medical oncologist has successfully shrunk a tumor through targeted therapy, a surgical oncologist will excavate the remaining piece.
    • Radiation Oncologist: As the name suggests, these doctors treat cancer through radiation therapy.

    Dr. Nair works as a hematologist-oncologist. Because cancer often involves blood and bone marrow (leukemia, lymphoma, myeloma), having training in both oncology (solid tumors) and hematology (blood disorders) allows a doctor to treat a wider variety of patients without having to refer them to another clinic. Also, in the U.S., most oncologists need no extra schooling to end up board-certified in both.

    Typically, becoming an oncologist requires about 14-16 years of school. This includes a four-year undergraduate program, where students generally major in biology, chemistry, mathematics, or physics. Then, students take the MCAT, or the Medical College Admission Test, and attend medical school to earn their MD. After four years of medical school, doctors attend a three-year residency program. Finally, they complete a three-year fellowship program, subspecializing in oncology or hematology-oncology. Oncologists typically finish schooling in their mid-thirties, and though they spend most of their twenties in schooling, many agree that this time is fully necessary due to the extensive information students have to understand.

    A central part of an oncologist’s job is responding to a wide spectrum of questions, ranging from emotional ones like “if the tumor is getting bigger, do I have less time to live?” to straightforward questions like, “if I eat and sleep more, will I have more energy the next morning?” Sure, many of these questions become routine over time, but it’s that rare, complex one that truly tests a doctor’s knowledge and, when answered well, builds even more trust between the patient and their provider. Because cancer is such a serious topic, patients seek oncologists who make them comfortable, and the best way to provide that security is by easing their uncertainties and reinforcing confidence in their provider. This is exactly why those 14 long years of medical training matter so much.

    The Difference Between Private Practice and Clinic

    Dr. Nair is affiliated with the broader group Texas Oncology and practices at Medical City Dallas, but before going in to shadow her, I had no idea what the difference between a private practice and a clinic was. Here is an easy way to break it down:

    • Private practice: When a doctor or group of doctors owns, manages, and runs their own medical office. Like a business, they hire staff, manage billing, and run their own practice from top to bottom. Though private practice intersects the two contrasting fields of medicine and business, these doctors have more flexibility when not working for a large hospital or healthcare system.
    • Clinic: Usually affiliated with a larger group, hospital, or university. Doctors who work as part of a clinic follow the protocol set up by a broader employer and focus less on business and management.

    Highlight Patients

    You may think that looking at cancer gets repetitive after a while, and maybe you’re right- but in the two weeks that I shadowed Dr. Nair, we saw a wide variety of patients that kept me quite interested. Often, it wasn’t the cancer or condition that made them memorable, but their personality, and the reminder that cancer does not discriminate. People from all walks of life, rich or poor, tall or short, male or female, can be struck by the disease at random and affected in similar ways.

    1. Female, mid-40s, obese

    This patient was on blood-thinners that were administered by the hospital. Upon arriving home, she purposefully took double the prescribed dose for a few days. With the alarmingly high dosage this patient was taking, her gums would bleed when brushing her teeth, and minor cuts would bleed profusely without stopping. Suddenly, the patient formed a massive internal hemorrhage in her stomach, and was rushed to the ICU where she took a break from blood thinners and recuperated.

    2. Female, mid-30s

    This patient was aware she had a tumor in her lungs, but didn’t know the extent of its spread or whether it was even malignant. As the cardiothoracic surgeon opened her chest to perform a biopsy and assess the situation, he found that the cancer presented as stage 4 and had spread extensively throughout the lungs. After removing substantial diseased lung tissue, the patient’s remaining lung capacity was too low to sustain oxygenation. Therefore, she was placed on a ventilator that essentially acted as a pair of bedside lungs, pumping air for her.

    3. Female, early-60s, groaning in pain

    As Dr. Nair and I walked into the patient’s room, she was lying on the bed, groaning and screaming in severe pain. This woman had a pancreatic tumor, one of the most painful types of cancer, due to the tumor pressing on bunches of nerves and organs in the abdomen and back. Though she was fully lucid, the pain was preventing her from formulating complete thoughts or ideas, and her husband described that she could not eat properly or move around without a wheelchair. Dr. Nair told the couple to visit the ER within the hospital immediately, so that the patient could be administered stronger pain medications.

    The role of women in healthcare

    One thing that really stuck out to me was the number of women who worked in the office with Dr.Nair. Out of the three oncologists, only one was a man, and the rest of the staff, including the P.A. and infusion nurses, were all women.

    In fact, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics; around 77.6% of all healthcare workers are women. However, we hold a disproportionately small number of leadership positions compared to men. Where 77.6% of healthcare workers are women, only about 38% of all physicians are women.

    Male and Female Doctors Statistics 2025 By Disparities, Trajectories and Professions / Market.us Media ©

    Despite the gender gap that still exists today, equality growth in the last 20 years alone has been monumental. According to the Association of American Medical Colleges,

    “From 2004 to 2022, the number of women in the active physician workforce increased 97%.”

    Going forward, the future looks bright too. In 2019, women for the first time accounted for a majority (50.5%) of students enrolled in medical school in the United States. Today, women account for about 54.6% of medical school students. As women make up the majority of medical school graduates, the number of physicians in the coming years will consequently increase.

    Conclusion

    Before I arrived at the oncologist’s office, I pictured a gloomy waiting room filled with silent, dejected patients. Instead, I discovered something completely different. People tend to imagine only the sickest patients at a cancer clinic, the ones who are dying. But they often forget about the many who are improving, on the uphill climb, and who see the doctor’s office not as a place of punishment or despair, but as a lifeline that offers hope and light at the end of the tunnel.

    Seeing this side of cancer care reshaped my view of healthcare entirely. It made me realize that medicine isn’t just about treating disease and sending patients on their way, but instead creating an environment where people are given a reason to keep fighting.

    References

    AMA Writers. (2023, October 25). What is private practice-and is it right for you?. American Medical Association. https://www.ama-assn.org/practice-management/private-practices/what-private-practice-and-it-right-you
    Deb, T. (2025, January 13). Male and female doctors statistics and facts (2025). Market.us Media. https://media.market.us/male-and-female-doctors-statistics/
    U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (n.d.). Over 16 million women worked in health care and social assistance in 2021. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. https://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2022/over-16-million-women-worked-in-health-care-and-social-assistance-in-2021.html
  • the entire history of spacetime, i guess (part 3)

    the entire history of spacetime, i guess (part 3)

    By Aashritha Shankar

    ~ 11 minutes

    While the concepts of space and time were fundamental to the Newtonian world, centuries of digging deeper into the mechanics of our universe have uncovered that it isn’t all as simple as it seems. From Einstein’s Special Relativity to theories of multi-dimensional time, the science behind space and time has evolved into a complex field.

    Why Extra Temporal Dimensions?

    The search for extra spatial dimensions raises questions of the potential for extra temporal dimensions. If space can have more dimensions, why can’t time? The motivations to explore the potential for extra temporal dimensions arise from a desire to better understand the nature of time and the symmetries between them.

    Another reason to study these extra-temporal dimensions is the desire to unify seemingly disconnected parts of time. Many frameworks for extra temporal dimensions have revealed previously unnoticed symmetries and relationships between different temporal systems that would not be discovered while only working in one dimension.

    The concept of “complex time” is used to fix some of the problems of quantum mechanics. This idea suggests that time should be represented as a complex value rather than a real number. It would allow more ways to represent wave-particle duality, entanglement, and other fundamental concepts of quantum physics.

    2T-Physics

    Proposed by physicist Itzhak Bars, 2T-Physics suggests that the one dimension of time we experience is really just a “shadow” of the real two dimensions of time. The core motivation of 2T-Physics is to reveal the deeper temporal connections that we don’t see in our one-dimensional perspective. In 2T-Physics, two seemingly disconnected temporal systems are actually connected and represent different views or ‘shadows’ of the same two-dimensional time. 

    2T-Physics unifies a wide range of physical systems using “gauge symmetry,” which is the property of a system where a set of transformations, called gauge transformations, can be used on a system without changing any of the physical properties of that system. Bars also illustrated that the Standard Model could be explained by 2T-Physics with four spatial dimensions. Not only can this model predict most of the Standard Model, but it also provides a solution to some quantum issues.

    An interesting difference between the Standard Model and the predictions of 2T-Physics is the gravitational constant. While it is currently established that the coefficient in gravitational equations is a constant 6.67⋅10-11, the mathematics of 2T-Physics means that the gravitational constant has different values for different periods of our universe (inflation, grand unification, etc). This allows new possibilities for early expansion of our universe that General Relativity and the Standard Model do not. Through its new perspectives, 2T-Physics allows a more complete framework of gravity, especially at higher dimensions.

    While 2T-Physics is well-established, it remains highly theoretical and has little to no practical impact. While there is no evidence directly supporting the theory, 2T-Physics predicts certain connections between different physical systems that could potentially be verified through complex experiments, though none have been conducted so far. Above all, 2T-Physics provides a new perspective on time and the nature of the laws of physics that has opened the eyes of many scientists and will likely inspire future discoveries.

    3D Time

    One of the most recent papers in the field, Kletetschka, proposes a mathematical framework of spacetime that includes temporal dimensions. Kletetschka provides a new perspective on combining gravity and quantum mechanics. Instead of having two hidden dimensions of time, Kletetschka theorizes that each of these dimensions is used to represent time at different scales: the quantum scale, the interaction scale, and the cosmological scale. He explains that the other two dimensions are not visible in our daily life because they occur at very small (quantum) levels or very large (cosmological) levels.

    Figure 3, Three-Dimensional Time: A Mathematical Framework for Fundamental Physics, World Scientific Connect ©

    A massive difference between this theory and conventional physics is that while conventional physics considers space to be something vastly different from time, Kletetschka proposes that space is a byproduct of time in each of these dimensions, rather than an entirely separate entity. What we experience as mass or energy actually arises from the curvature of time in these three dimensions. As Kletetschka explored more into this, he discovered surprising consistency in the mathematics, leading to a deeper exploration into the concept.

    The key to not creating causality issues and instability in the theory was the usage of regular geometry and spatial dimensions instead of exotic situations that are hard to prove or test. This theory aimed to address many of the long-standing issues in quantum mechanics, and its success thus far makes it a prominent theory in the field.

    The theory is able to add extra temporal dimensions without causing causality issues, something very few theories of its type have been able to grapple with. This is due to its structure. The theory is designed so that the three axes share an ordered flow, preventing an event from happening before its cause. Furthermore, these three axes operate at very different scales, leaving very little overlap between them. The mathematics of the framework does not allow for the alteration of events in the past, something that many other theories allow.

    The theory is able to offer physical significance and a connection to our world alongside mathematical consistency. Things such as finite quantum corrections, which other theories were not able to predict, were mechanized by this model without creating extra complexity.

    This mathematical framework is able to predict several properties and new phenomena that can be experimentally tested, allowing pathways to prove or disprove it soon. Meanwhile, many scientists have spoken in support of the theory, considering it a promising candidate for a near “Theory of Everything” just a few months after its publication.

    Conclusion

    While the theoretical motivation for extra dimensions is compelling, the reality of their existence remains unconfirmed. Meanwhile, the scientific community works to experimentally prove or disprove their existence through observational evidence.

    The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN is one of the major players on the experimental side. They engage in many experiments, a few of which I have highlighted below.

    1. Tests for Microscopic Black Holes: Many of the theories that propose extra dimensions lead to increased gravitational power within short distances. This manifests physically as microscopic black holes that would dissipate near instantaneously due to Hawking Radiation. However, the byproduct of this dissipation would be particles detected through the LHC.
    2. The Graviton Disappearance: Another common feature of extra-dimensional theories is the manifestation of gravity as a particle called a graviton. That particle would disappear into these extra dimensions, taking energy with it. This would result in an imbalance in the total energy of the system.

    While experiments have managed to provide more limitations for potential values that would work in certain theories, they have yet to prove or disprove them.

    Meanwhile, it is important to consider what extra dimensions would mean for us and the way we live. The concept of extra dimensions provides multiple philosophical considerations for us as humans. This concept completely changes our worldview and affects our perception of the universe. Dr. Michio Kaku explains this through the analogy of a fish in a pond, unaware of the world outside its simple reality. Our perception of reality is limited, not only by our understanding of physics, but also by the biology of our brains.

    The work towards a “Theory of Everything” is not only a physical goal but a philosophical one as well. We strive to understand our universe and everything within it in the simplest way possible. It embodies human desire for ultimate knowledge and drives centuries of physical progress.

    Overall, the concept of extra dimensions represents one of the most arduous and ambitious goals in human history. While they lack proof, these theories motivate people to search more into the nature of our universe and question the very fabric of our reality. The exploration into further discoveries about our universe truly shows who we are as humans and will continue to motivate centuries of physicists to question the very nature of everything.

    References

    6.2: Relation Between Events- Timelike, Spacelike, or Lightlike. (2022, January 20). Physics LibreTexts. https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Relativity/Spacetime_Physics_(Taylor_and_Wheeler)/06%3A_Regions_of_Spacetime/6.02%3A_Relation_Between_Events-Timelike_Spacelike_or_Lightlike
    A quote from Physics of the Impossible. (2025). Goodreads.com. https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/8392801-but-historically-the-fourth-dimension-has-been-considered-a-mere
    Albert Einstein Quote: “When forced to summarize the general theory of relativity in one sentence: Time and space and gravitation have no separa…” (n.d.). Quotefancy.com. https://quotefancy.com/quote/763238/Albert-Einstein-When-forced-to-summarize-the-general-theory-of-relativity-in-one-sentence
    Bars, I. (2006). The Standard Model as a 2T-physics Theory. 903(1). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.2735245
    Bars, I., & Costas Kounnas. (1997). Theories with two times. Physics Letters B, 402(1-2), 25–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0370-2693(97)00452-8
    Bars, I., & Kuo, Y.-C. (2007). Field Theory in Two-Time Physics withN=1Supersymmetry. Physical Review Letters, 99(4). https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevlett.99.041801
    Bars, I., & Terning, J. (2010). Extra Dimensions in Space and Time (F. Nekoogar, Ed.). Springer New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-77638-5
    Bell, J. (n.d.). Time and Causation in Gödel’s Universe. https://publish.uwo.ca/~jbell/Time.pdf
    Beuke, F. (2025). beuke.org. Beuke.org. https://beuke.org/calabi-yau-manifold/
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    Church, B. (2022). Kaluza-Klein Theory. https://web.stanford.edu/~bvchurch/assets/files/talks/Kaluza-Klein.pdf
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    Filimowicz, M. (2025, April). Hidden Geometries: The Search for Extra Dimensions and Their Technological Implications. Medium: Quantum Psychology, Biology, and Engineering. https://medium.com/quantum-psychology-and-engineering/hidden-geometries-the-search-for-extra-dimensions-and-their-technological-implications-b999133086c9
    Foster, J. G., & Müller, B. (2025). Physics With Two Time Dimensions. ArXiv.org. https://arxiv.org/abs/1001.2485
    Gunther Kletetschka. (2025). Three-Dimensional Time: A Mathematical Framework for Fundamental Physics. Reports in Advances of Physical Sciences, 09. https://doi.org/10.1142/s2424942425500045
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  • the entire history of spacetime, i guess (part 2)

    the entire history of spacetime, i guess (part 2)

    By Aashritha Shankar

    ~ 8 minutes

    While the concepts of space and time were fundamental to the Newtonian world, centuries of digging deeper into the mechanics of our universe have uncovered that it isn’t all as simple as it seems. From Einstein’s Special Relativity to theories of multi-dimensional time, the science behind space and time has evolved into a complex field.

    What are Extra Spatial Dimensions?

    As scientists explored further into spacetime, theories of more dimensions of space, beyond the three we know, were suggested as a way to explain many of the phenomena that we cannot explain with only three dimensions. These ideas gained most of their traction from the pursuit to combine quantum mechanics with General Relativity, especially issues such as quantum gravity. These theories also attempt to address the rapid growth of the universe after the Big Bang.

    What were the motivations to search for Extra Dimensions?

    The idea of more dimensions began as a way to unify the fundamental forces of our universe. Modern theories regarding these ideas come from a drive to resolve some of the unaddressed issues of the Standard Model of physics. While the Standard Model is able to describe fundamental particles and the strong, weak, and electromagnetic forces, it is unable to describe gravity. In addition, the Standard Model cannot address dark matter and dark energy, which make up the majority of our universe.

    One of the most significant problems in physics is the Hierarchy problem. It refers to the massive gap in strength between gravity and the other three fundamental forces. This extreme difference comes from the small scale of the strength of gravity in comparison to the other forces. Extra-Dimensions have attempted to resolve this by suggesting that while gravity may be just as strong as the other forces, its strength is leaked into the other dimensions, thus weakening it.

    This search to discover extra dimensions is not only about solving these specific technical issues; it’s about the centuries-long quest to find a Theory of Everything. Physicists constantly strive to find simpler solutions to describe our universe rather than leaning on hyperspecific coefficients/constants.

    While there are many theories involving extra-spatial dimensions, part 2 will focus on a few of the biggest and most influential theories so far.

    Kaluza-Klein Theory

    In 1919, Theodor Kaluza proposed his theory of four-dimensional space as an attempt to combine gravity and electromagnetism. This theory was later built upon by Oscar Klein in 1926.

    In Kaluza’s attempt to combine these fundamental forces, he suggested a fourth, unseen spatial dimension. To create this system, he used Einstein’s equations and extended them into a fifth dimension. He found that the five-dimensional version of Einstein’s equations naturally created the four-dimensional version in one part. The equation had fifteen components, ten of which described our four-dimensional General Relativity. Four of the remaining five described the electromagnetic force through Maxwell’s equations, while the last dimension was the scalar field, which had no known use. 

    A key concept of Kaluza-Klein theory is that, rather than seeing electric charge as simply an event or calculation, it is represented as the motion of the fifth dimension. The attempt to create the simplest mathematical structure that could represent the five dimensions led to the assumption that no part of the five-dimensional Einstein equations relied explicitly on this fifth dimension. Instead, its presence was there to alleviate other issues in the Standard Model without disrupting the basic functions of Einstein’s equations. In order to do this, Kaluza created the cylinder condition, where he described all coordinate values in the fifth dimension to be zero, effectively hiding it at a macroscopic level, preserving the four dimensions that we experience.

    Oscar Klein produced a physical explanation for the cylinder condition in 1926. He suggested that the fifth dimension was compactified and curled up into an unobservable circle with an incredibly small radius, explaining that this is why we are unable to witness the fifth dimension.

    An interesting way to understand this is to think of a hose. From a distance, the hose looks like a single-dimensional line. However, the hose actually has two dimensions, both a dimension of length as well as a circular dimension.

    This theory revolutionized how physicists thought about spacetime. In a letter to Kaluza that same year, Einstein wrote,

    “The idea of achieving unification by means of a five-dimensional cylinder world never dawned on me […]. At first glance, I like your idea enormously. The formal unity of your theory is startling.” (Einstein, 1919)

    Over time, Kaluza-Klein theory has been disproven due to its several fundamental flaws. Scientists have tested for Kaluza-Klein resonances, particles that would have to exist if the theory were to be true, and have found none. In addition, Kaluza-Klein theory only addresses gravity and electromagnetism but excludes the strong and weak forces. When incorporated with quantum mechanics, Kaluza-Klein theory predicts many incorrect values for otherwise known constants, showing massive discrepancies. Despite these issues, Kaluza-Klein theory has long been considered the first step into the exploration of extra-dimensions, becoming the precursor to many theories in the decades after. Its core idea- that hidden dimensions cause forces in our four dimensions-has been crucial to further exploration into the concept of spacetime.

    String Theory and M-Theory

    String Theory / Kids Press Magazine ©

    String Theory is a very common term, but few people actually know what it means. String theory proposed that instead of the universe being made up of zero-dimensional points, it is made up of strings that vibrate. The specific vibration of these strings would determine what they would be (photon, quark, etc.). The theory aimed to unify all of these different particles and properties into one thing: the string.

    When physicists first began to work on String Theory, they found many mathematical issues, such as negative probabilities. In four dimensions, these strings don’t have enough space to produce the wide range of vibrations needed to create all the particles in the standard model.  Thus, Superstring Theory suggests that these strings are ten-dimensional objects (nine dimensions of space and one of time). A major reason why physicists were happy with string theory at the time was that it naturally predicted a particle called a ‘graviton’. This particle would have the same effect as the force of gravity. Theoretical physicist Edward Witten has commented on this by saying,

    “Not only does [string theory] make it possible for gravity and quantum mechanics to work together, but it […] forces them upon you.” (Edward Witten, NOVA, PBS)

    M-Theory is an extension of String Theory that adds one more spatial dimension. Prior to its creation, different groups of physicists had created five versions of String Theory.

    However, a true “Theory of Everything” should be one theory, not five possibilities.

    M-Theory was created as an attempt to unify these five types of string theory. The key to the development of M-Theory was the discovery of mathematical transformations that took you from one version of String Theory to another, showing that these were not truly separate theories. M-theory theorized that these different versions were just different approximations of the same theory that could be unified by adding another dimension. M-Theory’s eleven-dimensional framework allowed for the unification of these five theories alongside the theory of supergravity.

    M-Theory, similarly to Kaluza-Klein Theory, also proposes that the extra dimensions are curled up and compacted. M-Theory uses a specific geometric shape, known as a Calabi-Yau manifold, to create the physical effects we observe in our four dimensions from the other hidden seven. Calabi-Yau manifolds are a highly compact and complex type of manifold that are the foundation of M-Theory because they allow complex folding without affecting the overall curvature of our universe through a property called “Ricci-flatness”.  The Calabi-Yau manifolds also have “holes” within their shapes that are thought to connect to the number of families of particles we experience in the Standard Model. This introduces the key concept that, instead of the fundamental laws of physics just being rules, they are actually geometric properties of our universe.

    The biggest challenge that M-Theory is facing is its lack of experimental evidence. Predictions made by this model are not testable by currently available or foreseeable technology due to the high-dimensional microscopic levels required. Without making testable predictions, the theory remains just a theory for the time being.

    Despite this lack of proof, many physicists still see M-Theory as a prominent candidate in our search for a “Theory of Everything”. Its mathematical consistency and its ability to unify both gravitational and quantum effects lead to it being considered highly promising.

    However, while the math behind M-Theory is highly developed, it is not yet complete. The theory is still a work in progress as research is being conducted to better understand its structure and significance.

    Meanwhile, critics believe that M-Theory is fundamentally flawed. Many of them believe that the “Landscape” problem is a significant reason that M-Theory is untrue. The “Landscape” problem is described as the fact that the theory predicts many different universes, each with its own set of physical laws. Critics believe that this prediction proves the unreliability of M-Theory and that a true “Theory of Everything” would be applicable only to our universe.

    Overall, M-Theory has neither been proven nor disproven and remains a crucial area for future exploration.

    All references listed on Part 3.

  • the entire history of spacetime, i guess (part 1)

    the entire history of spacetime, i guess (part 1)

    By: Aashritha Shankar

    ~ 8 minutes

    While the concepts of space and time were fundamental to the Newtonian world, centuries of digging deeper into the mechanics of our universe have uncovered that it isn’t all as simple as it seems. From Einstein’s Special Relativity to theories of multi-dimensional time, the science behind space and time has evolved into a complex field.

    Newtonian Absolutism

    At the dawn of classical mechanics, Newton created the foundation upon which all of modern spacetime theory is built. Space and time were considered to be entirely unrelated and absolute concepts. There was no question in his mind that time moves forward and space exists around us. Space was considered a static body within which we exist, while time was described as flowing in only one direction at a steady rate. Imagine space as a box, where events are contained within, and time as a river whose current pulls us along.

    Newton coined the terms ‘absolute space’ and ‘absolute time’ to describe the absolutes from the relativity we measure. For centuries, this theory remained unquestioned, so physicists didn’t consider time and space to be real entities, but rather our human way of interpreting the world around us.

    Einstein’s Revolution:

    Special Relativity

    The first true challenge to the Newtonian perspective of space and time came in the form of Einstein’s Special Relativity. He introduced one key revolutionary concept: everything, including space and time, is relative, depending only upon the observer’s frame of reference.

    The motivations for Einstein’s work arose from the desire to eliminate the contradiction between Maxwell’s equations and Newtonian Mechanics. A simple way to visualize this contradiction is by imagining the following scenario:

    Two rockets in space are flying towards each other at a speed of 500 miles per hour. This would result in a relative speed of 1000 miles per hour. Now, if you were to throw a rock from one ship to another at a speed of 10 miles per hour, it would reach the other ship with a relative speed of 510 miles per hour. However, the substitution of light into this situation instead of a rock changes this because the speed of light is constant. No matter how fast you travel towards light, it will always come towards you at the same constant speed: 3·108m/s, or the speed of light.

    Many tests were done to prove that the wave-particle duality of light was the reason for this phenomenon. Rather than trying to disprove or explain away the theory, Einstein decided to take the constant speed of light as a fundamental property. He didn’t explain the speed of light, but used it to explain other things. Einstein was willing to give up the time-honored fundamentals of Newton’s laws in favor of the constant speed of light. 

    He began with the basic definition of speed as the distance divided by the time. If the speed of light remains constant as this rocket reduces the distance to be travelled, then the time must also decrease to preserve this equality. When mathematically calculating this, Einstein discovered the concept of time dilation, where objects in motion experience time more slowly than objects at rest. Continuing with similar methods for other properties, such as conservation, he discovered that mass would increase with speed and length would decrease. The true genius in Einstein was his willingness to question his own assumptions and give up some of the most basic qualities of the universe, in favor of the speed of light.

    General Relativity

    Special Relativity, however, did not incorporate gravity. Before Einstein, physicists believed that gravity was an invisible force that dragged objects towards one another. However, Einstein’s general relativity suggested that the ‘dragging’ was not gravity, but rather an effect of gravity. He theorized that objects in space bent the space around them, inadvertently bringing objects closer to one another.

    General Relativity defines spacetime as a 4D entity that has to obey a series of equations known as Einstein’s equations. He used these equations to suggest that gravity isn’t a force but instead a name we use to describe the effects of curved spacetime on the distance between objects. Einstein proved a correlation between the mass and energy of an object and the curvature of the spacetime around it.

    His work allowed him to prove that:

    “When forced to summarize the general theory of relativity in one sentence: Time and space and gravitation have no separate existence from matter.” -Einstein.

    Einstein’s General Relativity predicted many things that were only observationally noticed years later. A famous example of this is gravitational lensing, which is when the path of light curves as it passes a massive object. This effect was noticed by Sir Arthur Eddington in 1919 during a solar eclipse, yet Einstein managed to predict it with no physical proof in 1912.

    Closed-Timelike-Curves (CTCs)

    Another major prediction made by Einstein’s General Relativity is Closed-Timelike-Curves (CTCs), which arise from mathematical solutions to Einstein’s equations. Some specific solutions to these equations, such as massive, spinning objects, create situations in which time could loop.

    In physics, objects are considered to have a specific trajectory through spacetime that will indicate the object’s position in space and time at all times. When these positions in spacetime are connected, they form a story of an object’s past, present, and future. An object that is sitting still will have a worldline that goes straight in the time direction. Meanwhile, an object in motion will also have an element of spatial position. Diagrams of a worldline are drawn as two light cones, one into the future and one into the past, with a spatial dimension on the other axis, as seen in figure 1.

    Figure 1 / Takeshimg ©

    CTCs are created when the worldline of an object is a loop, meaning that the object will go backwards in time at some point to reconnect to its starting point. Closed-Timelike-Curves are, in essence, exactly what they sound like: closed curving loops that travel in a timelike way. Traveling in a timelike way, meaning that their change in time is greater than their change in space, suggests that these objects would have to be static or nearly static. As seen in Figure 2, the worldline of a CTC would be a loop, as there is some point in space and time that connects the end and the beginning.

    Figure 2 / Classical and Quantum Gravity / ResearchGate ©

    Two major examples of famous CTC solutions are the Gödel Universe and the Tipler Cylinder:

    • Gödel Universe: Suggested by mathematician Kurt Gödel in 1949, the Gödel Universe is a rotating universe filled with swirling dust. The rotation must be powerful enough that it can pull the spacetime around it as it spins. The curvature would become the CTC. This was the first solution found that suggested the potential for time-travel to be a legitimate possibility, not just a hypothetical scenario. 
    • Tipler Cylinder: In the 1970s, physicist Frank Tipler suggested an infinitely long, massive cylinder spinning along the vertical axis at an extremely high speed. This spinning would twist the fabric of spacetime around the cylinder, creating a CTC.

    Closed timelike curves bring many paradoxes with them, the most famous of which is the grandfather paradox. It states that if a man has a granddaughter who goes back in time to kill her grandfather before her parents are born, then she wouldn’t exist. However, if she doesn’t exist, then there is no one to kill her grandfather, thus meaning that she must exist. Yet if she exists, then her grandfather doesn’t.

    Most importantly, CTCs drove further exploration and directed significant attention to the spacetime field for decades. Scientists who didn’t fully believe Einstein’s General Relativity pointed to CTCs as proof of why it couldn’t be true, leaving those who supported Einstein to search extensively for a way to explain them. This further exploration into the field has laid the foundation for many theories throughout the years.

    The belief amongst scientists is that CTCs simply don’t exist because, while they are hypothetically possible, the energy requirements to create them are not yet feasible. Many of these setups require objects with negative energy density and other types of  ‘exotic matter’ that have not been proven to even exist yet. Furthermore, even if CTCs were to be formed, the specific region of spacetime where they form would be highly unstable, meaning that these CTCs would not sustain themselves. The situations in which CTCs would be feasible require types of fields of energy that would approach infinity and the Cauchy Horizon (the limit at which causality no longer exists, therefore making these situations physically unviable).

    All references listed on Part 3.

  • Gene Editing in Focus

    Gene Editing in Focus

    By Maggie Wright

    ~6 minutes

    Advancements in genetic engineering have brought revolutionary tools to the forefront of biotechnology, with CRISPR leading as one of the most precise and cost-effective methods of gene editing. CRISPR, which stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats, allows scientists to alter DNA sequences by targeting specific sections of the genome. Originally discovered as part of a bacterial immune system, CRISPR systems have now been adapted to serve as programmable gene-editing platforms. This paper explores how CRISPR works, its current uses, its future potential, and the ethical considerations surrounding its application in both human and non-human systems.

    How CRISPR System Works

    The CRISPR-Cas system operates by combining a specially designed RNA molecule with a CRISPR-associated protein, such as Cas9 or Cas12a. The RNA guides the protein to a specific sequence in the genome, where the protein then cuts the DNA. Once the strand is cut, natural repair mechanisms within the cell are activated. Researchers can either allow the cell to disable the gene or insert a new gene into the gap. As described by researchers at Stanford University,

    “The system is remarkably versatile, allowing scientists to silence genes, replace defective segments, or even insert entirely new sequences.” (CRISPR Gene Editing and Beyond)

    This mechanism has been compared to a pair of molecular scissors that can cut with precision. For example, the Cas9 protein is programmed with a guide RNA to recognize a DNA sequence of about 20 nucleotides. Once it finds the target, it makes a double-stranded cut. The repair process that follows enables gene knockouts, insertions, or corrections. This technology has dramatically reduced the time and cost associated with gene editing, making previously complex tasks achievable in weeks rather than months. According to a 2020 review,

    “CRISPR/Cas9 offers researchers a user-friendly, relatively inexpensive, and highly efficient method for editing the genome.” (Computational Tools and Resources Supporting CRISPR-Cas Experiments)

    A simple guide to CRISPR / Javier Zarracina / Vox ©

    CRISPR’s Application in Medicine

    CRISPR’s influence extends across many fields, but its role in medicine has attracted the most attention. Scientists are using CRISPR to treat genetic diseases such as sickle cell anemia by editing patients’ own stem cells outside the body and then reinserting them. In 2023, researchers published results showing that a single treatment could permanently alleviate symptoms for some patients with these genetic diseases (Zhang 4.) Another area of exploration includes its potential for treating cancers by modifying immune cells to better recognize and destroy cancerous tissue. According to Molecular Cancer,

    “Gene editing technologies have successfully demonstrated the correction of mutations in hematopoietic stem cells, offering hope for long-term cures.” (Zhang 3)

    Current gene-editing uses / Royal Society ©

    CRISPR in Agriculture

    Beyond human health, CRISPR has transformed agricultural practices. Scientists are using it to develop crops that resist pests, drought, or disease without the need for traditional genetic modification methods that insert foreign DNA. One of the longer processes of traditional modifications in DNA could include conjugation. This is moving genetic material through bacterial cells in a direct contact. Conjugation is just one example of many of the traditional genetic modification methods.

    CRISPR has been used to produce tomatoes with longer shelf lives and rice varieties that can survive in low-water environments. According to the World Economic Forum,

    “CRISPR can help build food security by making crops more resilient and nutritious.” (CRISPR Gene Editing for a Better World)

    Such developments are increasingly critical in addressing global food demands and climate challenges.

    Research is also underway to apply CRISPR in animal breeding and disease control. In mosquitoes, scientists are testing ways to spread genes that reduce malaria transmission. In livestock, researchers are working to produce animals that are more resistant to disease. These experiments, while promising, require cautious monitoring to ensure ecosystem stability and safety.

    Future Potential

    Looking ahead, new techniques are refining CRISPR’s capabilities. Base editing allows researchers to change a single letter of DNA without cutting the strand entirely, reducing the off-targeting effect such as prime editing, a newer method that uses an engineered protein to insert new genetic material without causing double-stranded breaks. These tools provide even more control. According to the Stanford report,

    “Prime editing may become the preferred approach for correcting single-point mutations, which are responsible for many inherited diseases.” (CRISPR Gene Editing and Beyond)

    Possible Concerns

    Despite its potential, CRISPR also raises important ethical concerns. One of the most debated topics is germline editing, or the modification of genes in human embryos or reproductive cells. Changes made at this level can be passed down to future generations, leading to unknown consequences. In 2018, the birth of twin girls in China following germline editing sparked international outrage and led to widespread calls for stricter regulation. The scientific community responded swiftly, with many organizations calling for a global prohibition on clinical germline editing. As CRISPR & Ethics – Innovative Genomics Institute (IGI) states,

    “Without clear guidelines, genome editing can rapidly veer into ethically gray areas, particularly in germline applications.”

    Another concern is the potential for unintended consequences, known as off-target effects. These are accidental changes to parts of the genome that were not intended to be edited, which could lead to harmful mutations or unforeseen health problems. I will expand on this later in the article. Researchers are actively developing tools to better predict and detect such errors, but long-term safety remains a topic of study. The possibility of using CRISPR for non-therapeutic purposes, such as enhancing physical or cognitive traits.

    Cost and accessibility are also significant factors. Although the CRISPR tools themselves are affordable for research institutions, the cost of CRISPR-based therapies remains high. According to Integrated DNA Technologies,

    “Therapies based on CRISPR currently cost hundreds of thousands of dollars per patient, limiting their availability.” (CRISPR-Cas9: Pros and Cons)

    Bridging this gap requires investments in infrastructure, policy development, and global partnerships to ensure that developing countries are not left behind.

    In conclusion, CRISPR is reshaping the landscape of genetics and biotechnology. It has already brought major advances to medicine, agriculture, and environmental science. While the technology is still evolving, its precision offers a glimpse into the future of human health. CRISPR the potential to unlock solutions to some of humanity’s most pressing challenges.

    References

    “5 Novel Uses of CRISPR Gene Editing.” Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology News, http://www.genengnews.com/topics/genome-editing/5-novel-uses-of-crispr-gene-editing. Accessed 31 July 2025.
    “CRISPR Gene Editing and Beyond.” Stanford News, Stanford University, 2024, news.stanford.edu/stories/2024/06/stanford-explainer-crispr-gene-editing-and-beyond. Accessed 31 July 2025.
    “CRISPR-Cas9 Gene Editing.” Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, http://www.broadinstitute.org/news/crispr-cas9-gene-editing-explained. Accessed 31 July 2025.
    “CRISPR Gene Editing for a Better World.” World Economic Forum, 2024, www.weforum.org/stories/2024/04/crispr-gene-editing-better-world. Accessed 31 July 2025.
    “CRISPR-Cas9: What Are the 10 Pros and 7 Cons?” IDT DNA, Integrated DNA Technologies, www.idtdna.com/pages/community/blog/post/crispr-cas9-what-are-the-10-pros-and-7-cons. Accessed 31 July 2025.
    “Current Gene Editing Uses.” National Human Genome Research Institute, http://www.genome.gov/about-genomics/fact-sheets/Genome-Editing. Accessed 31 July 2025.
    Lino, Cathryn A., et al. “Delivering CRISPR: A Review of Methods and Applications.” Drug Delivery and Translational Research, vol. 8, no. 1, 2020, pp. 1–14. PubMed Central, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7427626/. Accessed 31 July 2025.
    Zhang, Yujing, et al. “Gene Editing in Cancer: Opportunities and Challenges.” Molecular Cancer, vol. 22, no. 48, 2023, https://molecular-cancer.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12943-023-01925-5. Accessed 31 July 2025.
  • How Microplastics in the Placenta and Other Reproductive Parts Pose a Threat to Human Health

    How Microplastics in the Placenta and Other Reproductive Parts Pose a Threat to Human Health

    By Gabrielle Eisenberg

    ~17 minutes

    “Not only are plastics polluting our oceans and waterways and killing marine life – it’s in all of us and we can’t escape consuming plastics,” says Marco Lambertini, Director General of WWF International [20].

    The emergence of plastic and its accumulation in people and the environment has been a rising global concern for over 80 years, since it first caught the attention of scientists in the 1960s due to the observed effects in marine species [7]. Even more concerning, plastics continue to accumulate on the planet year after year. In 2019, there were a predicted 22 million tons of plastic worldwide, with a projected 44 million tons of plastic polluting our earth within the next 35 years [5].

    In particular, humans inhale about 53,700 particles of plastic a year and orally ingest anywhere between 74,000 and 121,000 annually [5]. Plastics production and environmental buildup are surging with modern prosperity and efficiency, posing a serious threat to human reproductive health as they accumulate in critical reproductive organs like the placenta.

    Microplastics

    “Microplastics could become the most dangerous environmental contamination of the 21st century, with plastic in everything we consume, it may seem helpless.” [18]

    Microplastics are tiny particles of plastic that are contained in the air, plastic dust, food, fabrics, table salt, trash, and nearly every part of modern life. They can range from five millimeters to one micrometer (µm) [11]. Even smaller sizes of microplastics, called nanoplastics, pose a threat to human cells. Less than 100 nm in size, nanoplastics can cross all organs, including the placenta and blood system [11]. Microplastics of size ≤ 20 µm can enter any organ, and; ≤ 100 µm can be absorbed from the gut to the liver [11]. Scientists have discovered microplastics in many parts of the human body, including the liver, blood, and other reproductive organs, including the placenta [15].

    Microplastics have multiple routes of getting into the body, which makes them a challenging threat for humans to overcome. To begin, they can be absorbed into the body by wearing clothes with fabrics containing plastic, like polyester. Although this most commonly occurs via inhalation of microplastics in the air, emerging theories also suggest that with long enough exposure to intact or open wounds, absorption of nanoplastics through the skin is possible as well. Inhalation can also occur from air pollution, specifically in areas with high carbon dioxide and dust levels. 

    In addition, microplastics can be consumed through foods we eat, or plastics we drink or touch, like plastic straws. Marine life also consumes a significant amount of microplastics from pollution in the ocean. Importantly for humans, this is an entry point to the food supply, as the contaminated marine life will then pass the microplastics up the food chain to humans when we eat seafood [11]. Moreover, cleaning products and cosmetics can contain a high amount of plastics that are absorbed into the skin [11]. Some estimates say that a credit card’s worth of microplastics is inhaled by an individual human every week [2]. 

    Micro plastics mixed in the sand in Famara beach / Lanzarote / Inside Water ©

    A practical solution would be to pass the microplastics in the stool; however, the plastics do not always leave the body via waste. Sometimes, microplastics accumulate in the body over long periods of time and absorb into the intestines, bloodstream, and other tissues. Microplastics tend to find their way into crucial arteries and tissues due to their molecular composition.

    They are made of synthetic polymers, a series of repeating monomers. The monomers in microplastics are made up of carbon and hydrogen atoms and occasionally have oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine, or sulfur atoms inside [3]. Some of the main components of microplastics are their polymer chains because, like polyethylene, they contain monomers like (–CH₂–CH₂–)ₙ [3]. Also, plastics usually contain additives to enhance their usual properties, but they also have harmful effects on humans. For example, phthalates, which make polyethylene flexible, negatively impact reproductive signals, while colorants are not chemically bonded to the polymer, and thus escape into the environment [3]. Most importantly, microplastics are mostly hydrophobic, which means they repel against water. This causes them to bind with oily substances and bioaccumulate in human tissues [3].

    Female Reproductive System

    The reproductive system is a highly complex system requiring the coordination between several organ systems and the endocrine system to ensure the human body is an adequate environment for fetal development. The hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, located between the brain and reproductive organs helps to control ovulation and coordinate reproductive behavior [8].

    Hypothalamic pituitary gonadal axis / IJMS / ResearchGate ©

    First, a primary signal called the GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone) is produced by the hypothalamic neurons, which stimulates the pituitary gland to release two important hormones: FSH (follicle–a fluid filled sac in the ovary that contains the immature egg–stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone) [8]. These hormones lead to ovarian growth, egg maturation, and preparation of the uterine lining for pregnancy [8]. As the follicles grow, they start to make a form of estrogen known as estradiol, which will ultimately slow down the production of GnRH and FSH [8]. Once there is an adequate amount of estradiol, the GnRH and FSH will burst and surge, leading to ovulation. These reproductive hormones, such as GnRH, regulate the proper timing of a woman’s reproductive cycle [8].

    However, foreign chemicals, microplastics, and agents can interfere with hormonal signals, either blocking or mimicking them. This disruption can cause infertility, irregular menstrual cycles, and complications in fetal development, since hormones are key to regulating and protecting the growth of vital organs like the baby’s brain and heart [8].

    The placenta forms in a woman during pregnancy. The placenta is crucial for fetal development as it connects the fetal and maternal circulations via the umbilical cord. It supports the baby’s growth and development by providing nutrition and removing waste from the baby’s blood. In addition, the organ plays a major role in immunity because it helps the fetus identify self versus non-self cells and antigens. The placenta is located on the wall of the uterus lining and usually on the top, side, and sometimes even the lower area. When the placenta is too low, it raises a risk known as placenta previa, which is caused when the organ covers the cervical opening, and it can develop this way if microplastics were to block and change growth signaling for the placenta [14].

    Microplastics in Female Reproduction

    Microplastics enter the human placenta through many of the same pathways they use to accumulate in other tissues. First, they can be introduced through food consumption or inhalation [2]. Then, particles are absorbed through the gut and travel into the bloodstream, where they find their way into the placenta during pregnancy. 

    On a molecular level, after entering the body, their hydrophobic polymer chains prevent normal decomposition [2]. This means microplastics can proceed and bind to other toxins such as heavy metals, which can enhance the harmful effects in living organisms. Once inside the body, the microplastics can cross membranes such as those in the gut, like the M-cells in the intestinal lining, through the cellular process of endocytosis, which can take in foreign particles [2]. From there, they can enter the lymphatic system and/or the bloodstream [2].

    Structure of the placenta / Frontiers in immunology / ResearchGate ©

    Another pathway for microplastics is that sometimes they can bypass the digestive system completely through cells or between cells transport, which is also known as trans-cellular and paracellular transport [2]. Once in the bloodstream, microplastics can circulate to any part of the body, including the placenta. While the placenta does have a layer to protect it from harmful substances called a syncytiotrophoblast layer, nanoplastics can bypass this layer through endocytosis or passive diffusion through functional surfaces coated with proteins [2].

    Once inside, the microplastics may interact with intracellular structures like the mitochondria, which can affect energy production, the endoplasmic reticulum, and as a result impact protein synthesis and lysosomes, ultimately leading to cell damage [2]. Studies show high levels of microplastics in human placental tissue:

    In a 2024 study led by Dr. Matthew Campen and colleagues, microplastics were found in all 64 placentas studied, with amounts ranging from 6.5 to 790 micrograms per gram of tissue. Moreover, it was found that 54% of the plastic was polyethylene, the plastic that makes up plastic bags and bottles, with polyvinyl chloride and nylon being 10%, and the rest being nine other polymers [13]. This suggests that a majority of the placental microplastics are likely inhaled due to direct contact with the plastics on our mouth, nose, hands, etc.

    Another study showed that 10.9% of all microplastics found in a human body were in the placenta, demonstrating how common microplastic exposure is during human development [5]. Thus, microplastics can enter the developing fetus through the placenta [13]. Multiple international studies have found microplastics within the placenta and neonatal samples, suggesting a widespread exposure of microplastics globally [4]. Between 2021 and 2023, seven studies were conducted in four countries, which showed a high percentage of microplastics in the placental tissue.

    In 2021, an Italian study identified microplastics in four out of six placentas from vaginal births using light microscopy and Raman microspectroscopy [9]. In another Italian study, all ten placentas (from both vaginal and Cesarean section births) contained microplastics [9]. Electron microscopy revealed cellular damage, although the association with microplastics was not definitive [9]. Importantly, higher microplastics and polymer levels were linked to greater water consumption and frequent use of certain personal care products [9].

    In 2022, an Iranian study detected microplastics in 13/13 placentas from the intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) group and only 4/30 in the normal group [9]. This study implied that microplastic exposure may affect fetal development and normal growth. More studies also showed the presence of microplastics in cord blood samples [4]. However, only a few were tested since there is no commercially available test to find microplastics in placentas. These studies demonstrate that, as reproduction continues, this cycle could lead to a growing buildup of microplastics in future offspring and a possibility of new illnesses that will go unnoticed.

    Placental microplastics affect reproduction and early fetal development. Fetal development begins from the first stage of pregnancy, often before many women realize they are pregnant [19]. There are three stages of fetal development: germinal, embryonic, and fetal [19]. The germinal stage is where the sperm and egg combine to form the zygote [19]. From there, the zygote turns into a blastocyst, where it is implanted into the uterus [19]. Next is the embryonic stage, usually from around the third week of pregnancy to the eighth week [19]. During this stage, the blastocyst becomes an embryo as the baby develops human characteristics such as organs [19]. At weeks five to six, the heart is recognized in the baby, and little arm and leg stubs are also discoverable [19]. Finally, the fetal stage begins around the ninth week and lasts until birth. During the fetal stage, the baby develops its primary sex characteristics that officially turn the embryo into a fetus. The fetus also grows hair and fingernails at this time and can start to move [19].

    Microplastics can affect fetal development in several ways. Ultimately, babies are born pre-polluted [12].

    “If we are seeing effects on placentas, then all mammalian life on this planet could be impacted,” says Dr. Matthew Campen, Regents’ Professor, UNM Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences.

    Once the microplastics and nanoplastics enter cells, including both germ and somatic cells, they can cause oxidative damage, which can lead to DNA damage and cell death [16].

    Microplastics can lead to cell death through pyroptosis [16], a highly inflammatory form of lytic programmed cell death caused by microbial infection [17]. When microplastics are detected, there is trafficking of immune cells like natural killer, T cells, and uterine dendritic cells to extinguish them as they are detected as non-self [16]. In mouse models, placental microplastics were shown to reduce the number of live births, alter the sex ratio of offspring, and cause fetal growth restriction, all effects that have also been observed in humans.

    Microplastics in mice shown to reduce the number of live births / Wikimedia Commons ©

    If one of these effects is already seen in humans, it raises the possibility that the others could follow. Since microplastics are present in human tissues, the outcomes seen in animal models like hormonal disruption, reduced sperm count and viability, decreased egg quality, neurophysiological and cognitive deficits, and disrupted embryonic development, [1] could also emerge in humans.

    Furthermore, microplastics can change the gut microbiome and hormonal signaling, which can directly impact normal physiology and alter the signals sent between the uterus and embryo [1]. They do this by changing the balance and composition of the gut, which can lead to dysbiosis, an imbalance of the gut bacteria [10]. Some changes to the delicate gut microbiome could cause a condition called leaky gut, which shifts the previously semi-permeable membrane into a hyperpermeable one [10]. Emerging research demonstrates increasing rates of infertility, with scientists implicating environmental exposures, including microplastics.

    Microplastics may also affect the endocrine system, which leads to neurodevelopmental issues in the offspring [1]. Another feature of abnormal pregnancies can be high blood pressure in mothers (like preeclampsia), which can result in organ failure and severe problems in the mother [1]. The endocrine system is the hormone-regulating system in your body that directly involves the glands of the gonads (ovaries and testes). Microplastics can interfere with the production of these hormones due to the additive factors the polymers carry, like Bisphenol A (BPA), which is used to harden the plastic [1].

    These chemicals are known as endocrine-disrupting chemicals. In addition to this, it can directly bind to the hormone receptors and block normal signaling [1]. Such effects can change gene expression, cause hormone-related cancers, and most importantly, impact fetal endocrine function and development, including lower birth weight and reproductive disorders [1]. Ovarian cysts—fluid-filled sacs that develop on or in the ovaries—can also be caused by microplastics in the reproductive system [15]. When a hormone signal is out of balance, it can trigger the egg not to be released, which can persist to form a cyst [15]. Although this is still being researched by scientists today, there has been a direct correlation in mice, suggesting microplastics disrupt ovarian follicle development.

    Ovarian cyst / Zen Hospital ©

    While the immediate effects of microplastics in placentas are concerning, there are other long-term concerns, such as a generational impact, that raise a sense of urgency to the issue. First, microplastics do not disappear once a person dies [6]. The synthetic particles of microplastics resist biodegradation when the body is buried or even cremated [6]. This means it can reenter the ecosystem and harm other organisms [6]. On the other hand, microplastics are also being passed from generation to generation through parental gametes and the placenta. Microplastics can lead to more detrimental impacts that haven’t even been discovered yet. With more and more accumulation, the body can respond in many different ways that are hard to predict. However, it can be assumed that populations with more microplastics are more likely to be infertile in the future. One can imagine a scenario in which natural selection might occur, as people with less microplastics or who are less affected by their presence will be better able to survive and reproduce.

    Summary and Conclusion

    Microplastics lead to hormone imbalances of estrogen and other hormones in female bodies by disrupting hormone signaling (activating and blocking), and altering reproductive organ function and development, including infant birth weight, length, and head circumference [10]. Microplastics can interfere with gene expression or epigenetic markers, which can alter the way a fetus develops [10]. They can cut gene readings short, which could lead to affecting their length or head circumference [10]. Impaired egg development and follicular growth can impair fertility and have been linked with microplastic exposure [10]. Similarities can be seen in male fertility as microplastics affect the inflammatory response, change hormone levels with their disrupting and toxic chemicals, and cause cellular damage to the development of the gametes [5].  Overall, the effects of microplastics on reproductive systems have grave consequences, with evidence suggesting infertility in humans.

    In addition to understanding the effects of microplastics on human health and reproduction, scientists are working to rid the body of microplastics. By studying plastic-eating microorganisms, they can examine the enzymes they have that allow them to process microplastics naturally [10]. Additionally, as there is increasing understanding of methods of exposure, such as inhalation or absorption, [10], there are ways to reduce the chance of microplastic exposure to your body. For example, humans face the biggest possibility of exposure from food. Fish is a great source of nutrients and protein, however, it is extremely crucial to know that fish carry large quantities of microplastics ingested in the ocean. By ensuring trash and plastics do not end up in aquatic ecosystems, humans can reduce the chance of microplastics entering the food chain. Scientists are also advocating for the elimination of single-use plastic and finding a more sustainable way to save the human population and the environment.

    References

    Adverse effects of microplastics and nanoplastics on the reproductive system: A Comprehensive Review of Fertility and Potential Harmful Interactions. 10 Dec. 2023, http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969723048830.
    “Alarming Increase in Microplastics Detected in Human Placentas.” ScienceAlert, 23 Dec. 2023, http://www.sciencealert.com/alarming-increase-in-microplastics-detected-in-human-placentas. Accessed 24 Apr. 2025.
    A Simple Technique for Studying the Interaction of Polypropylene-Based Microplastics with Adherent Mammalian Cells Using a Holder. Feb. 2025, research.ebsco.com/c/3uzxq3/search/details/hul46wuiu5?isDashboardExpanded=true&limiters=FT1%3AY&q=DE%20%22MICROPLASTICS%22.
    Chemical Analysis of Microplastics and Nanoplastics: Challenges, Advanced Methods, and Perspectives. 26 Aug. 2021, pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00178.
    Cleveland Clinic. “Fetal Development.” Cleveland Clinic, 19 Mar. 2024, my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/7247-fetal-development-stages-of-growth.
    Comparison of Microplastic Levels in Placenta and Cord Blood Samples of Pregnant Women With Fetal Growth Retardation and Healthy Pregnant Women. Kutahya Health Sciences University, 1 Apr. 2022. clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT05070715?cond=placenta&term=microplastics&rank=1.
    Exposure to Microplastics and Human Reproductive Outcomes: A Systematic Review. 29 Jan. 2024, obgyn.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1471-0528.17756.
    From Cradle to Grave: Microplastics—A Dangerous Legacy for Future Generations. 22 Nov. 2024, http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3298/11/12/263.
    Haederle, Michael. “Microplastics in Every Human Placenta, New UNM Health Sciences Research Discovers.” UNM HSC Newsroom, 2024, hscnews.unm.edu/news/hsc-newsroom-post-microplastics.
    History and Future of Plastics. Science History Institute, http://www.sciencehistory.org/education/classroom-activities/role-playing-games/case-of-plastics/history-and-future-of-plastics/#:~:text=Growing%20Concerns%20About%20Plastics&text=In%20the%20postwar%20years%2C%20there,increasingly%20aware%20of%20environmental%20problems. Accessed 23 Apr. 2025.
    Hormonal Regulation of Female Reproduction. Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart, 2012, http://www.thieme-connect.de/products/ejournals/abstract/10.1055/s-0032-1306301. Accessed 29 Mar. 2025.
    Hunt K, Davies A, Fraser A, Burden C, Howell A, Buckley K, et al. Exposure to microplastics and human reproductive outcomes: A systematic review. BJOG. 2024; 131(5): 675–683. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0528.17756.
    Leaky Gut Syndrome. Cleveland Clinic, 6 Apr. 2022, my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22724-leaky-gut-syndrome.
    Microplastics Everywhere. 2023, magazine.hms.harvard.edu/articles/microplastics-everywhere.
    Microplastics Found in Human Placenta. 17 Mar. 2021, eco-nnect.com/microplastics-found-in-human-placenta/.
    Placenta: How It Works, What’s Normal. Mayo Clinic Staff, 8 Mar. 2024, http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/pregnancy-week-by-week/in-depth/placenta/art-20044425#:~:text=The%20placenta%20is%20an%20organ,nutrients%20to%20a%20developing%20baby.
    “Plasticenta: First Evidence of Microplastics in Human Placenta.” Jan. 2021, http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412020322297#:~:text=Potentially%2C%20MPs%2C%20and%20in%20general,foetal%20communication%2C%20signalling%20between%20the.
    Plastic Pollution Enters Human Placenta. 29 Dec. 2020, http://www.medindia.net/news/healthinfocus/plastic-pollution-enters-human-placenta-199111-1.html.
    Pyroptosis: Mechanisms and Diseases. 29 Mar. 2021, http://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-021-00507-5.
    Palanisami, Thava. “Plastic Ingestion by People Could Be Equating to a Credit Card a Week.” The University of Newcastle, Australia, 12 June 2019, http://www.newcastle.edu.au/newsroom/featured/plastic-ingestion-by-people-could-be-equating-to-a-credit-card-a-week.
  • Perovskite Based Photovoltaic Paint

    Perovskite Based Photovoltaic Paint

    By Katherine Mao

    ~ 9 minutes

    Imagine a world where every surface—the walls, the roof of your car—harnesses the sun to power your surroundings. Not with stiff, bulky solar panels, but with something as simple and inconspicuous as paint.

    Thanks to new and evolving technology, this vision inches closer and closer to reality. Perovskite-based photovoltaic paint is a developing technology with the potential to turn any paintable surface into a solar panel.

    What are Perovskites?

    Perovskites are a class of crystalline materials with the structural formula ABX₃. ABX₃ means that perovskites have a Large Cation(A), a Smaller Cation(B), and an Anion(X₃, often a halide). Their unique structure makes them incredibly efficient at converting sunlight into electricity, with recent developments reaching over 25% efficiency (25% of energy from the sun was converted into electricity), while traditional solar panels usually have 15-25% efficiency. 

    The Parts of Perovskite Solar Paint:

    Perovskite-based solar paint must be applied in multiple layers. The six main layers, in order, are: the transparent conductive layer (front/top electrode), electron transport layer, perovskite absorber layer, hole transport layer, back electrode, and substrate.

    The transparent conductive layer functions as the front electrode. It must be transparent, to allow sunlight to pass through, and conductive, to carry the extracted electrons.

    Next is the electron transport layer, which extracts and transports electrons from the perovskite layer to the electrode and prevents holes from moving in the wrong direction.

    The perovskite absorber layer is located at the center and is made of a perovskite compound that absorbs sunlight to create electron-hole pairs (excitons). It acts as the photoactive layer where sunlight is converted into electricity.

    The hole transport layer lies below, which extracts and transports holes (the positive charges) to the back electrode and blocks electrons from going backward, aiding in charge separation.

    The back electrode then collects the holes and completes the electrical circuit, allowing current to flow through an external device.

    Finally, the substrate is the surface being painted (can be glass, plastic, metal, etc.) and provides structural support.

    How Perovskite Solar Paint Works:

    Sunlight first hits a perovskite layer, and the perovskite material absorbs photons. This excites electrons from the valence band to the conduction band, creating electron-hole pairs (excitons). In perovskites, excitons require little energy to separate into electrons and holes, which improves efficiency. Electrons are pushed toward the electron transport layer and holes toward the hole transport layer. The front and back electrodes collect the charges, and because oppositely-charged electrons and holes are separated and collected on different sides, a voltage builds up between the two electrodes. When the painted solar surface is connected to a circuit, the voltage drives electrons through the wire, powering a device or charging a battery.

    A Game-Changer for Clean Energy

    Perovskite-based photovoltaic paint could radically transform the solar energy industry. Unlike traditional silicon, which requires high temperatures and vacuum conditions for production, perovskite materials are cheap and efficient. Perovskite paint can also be applied to a wide variety of surfaces, allowing homeowners to harness solar power in places where solar panels are impossible.

    The Challenges to Implementation

    As promising as perovskite solar paint is, several significant challenges stand in the way of widespread implementation. Current perovskite materials are highly sensitive to moisture, heat, and UV light, meaning they degrade quickly outdoors. While silicon panels can last 25 years or more, early perovskite prototypes can lose efficiency after months or just weeks. Researchers are working on protective coatings and new formulations to address this, but achieving long-term durability remains a hurdle. Most high-efficiency perovskite formulas also contain lead or other toxic heavy metals, raising concerns about environmental contamination and safe handling.

    Efforts to develop lead-free perovskites are ongoing (tin being a promising alternative), though they currently offer lower efficiency and a shorter lifespan. While perovskite solar paint and panels work well in laboratory settings, scaling up to commercial production is complex. A uniform coating that ensures proper perovskite crystallization must be applied over large areas, and surfaces must be treated to ensure adhesion and conductivity. In addition, regulatory bodies are still developing safety and performance standards for perovskite technologies. Gray areas remain about how these materials will be certified/recycled at the end of their lifespan.

    Global Progress and Investment

    In the U.S., the Department of Energy recently allocated over $40 million to perovskite R&D, focusing on improving durability and scaling up production methods. Startups like SolarPaint, Oxford PV, and Saule Technologies compete to bring the first market-ready products to consumers, while well-known companies like Mercedes-Benz seek to implement solar paint in their newest vehicles.

    Conclusion

    Perovskite-based photovoltaic paint is still in the early stages, but it represents one of the most exciting frontiers in renewable energy. If challenges like stability and toxicity can be solved, any painted surface could soon become a power source. Keep an eye on your walls—they might power the world someday.

    Glossary

    Valence Band:

    • The highest range of electron energies where electrons are normally present at low energy (ground state)
      • Valence electrons reside in the valence shell of atoms
      • In any given material, atoms are packed closely together so their valence shells overlap and form the valence band
    • Electrons here are bound to their atoms and don’t move freely.

    Band Gap:

    • The energy gap between the valence band and conduction band.
    • Electrons must absorb enough energy (like from sunlight) to jump across this gap.
    • The larger the gap, the more energy it takes to jump across, and the less conductive a material is
      • Semiconductors like perovskites have a small gap(1-2 electron volts) and can conduct electricity if energy is added(sunlight)

    Conduction Band:

    • The higher energy band where electrons are free to move through the material.
    • Electrons in this band can carry electricity.

    Electron-hole pairs:

    When a photon(light) hits the perovskite, it transfers energy to an electron, exciting it from the valence band to the conduction band.

    • The excited electron in the conduction band moves freely and can conduct electricity.
    • The “hole” is the spot the electron left behind—a positive charge in the valence band.
    • There is now an electron-hole pair

    Exciton:

    • An exciton is the state where an electron and a hole are bound together, still attracted to each other by opposing charges
    • Formed right after light absorption, before the electron fully separates from the hole/jumps to the conduction band.
    • Neutral overall, so they don’t conduct electricity until they break apart.
    • Common in some perovskites 

    Front and Back Electrode:

    • They collect and transport electrical charges (electrons and holes) generated by sunlight. 
    • They’re like the “wires” of the solar paint that let electricity flow out into a usable circuit.
    • Front electrode: Lets light in and collects electrons or holes(depends on design, usually electrons)
    • Back electrode: Collects the opposite of what the front electrode does(back electrode usually collects holes) and helps drive current through an external circuit

    Electron transport layer: 

    • Extracts and transports electrons to the correct electrode

    Hole transport layer:

    • Extracts and transports holes to the correct electrode
    • The transport layers guide the charges(electrons(-) and holes(+)) to the correct electrodes, helping to prevent recombination (when electrons and holes meet and cancel each other out).

     Voltage:

    • Voltage is defined as the electric potential difference between two points.
    • It tells you how much “push” electrons are getting.
    • Measured in volts (V)
    • Voltage is like water pressure in a pipe. The higher the pressure, the more push the water (electrons) is getting

    Current:

    • Definition: Current is the rate at which electric charge flows past a point.
    • Measured in amperes (A), or amps
    • More current = more electrons moving through the wire per second
    • Current is like the amount of water flowing through the pipe. The wider or faster the flow, the higher the current.

    Power:

    • Definition: Power is the rate at which electrical energy is used or produced
    • Measured in watts (W)
    • Formula: Power (P) = Voltage (V) × Current (I)
    • Power is like how much water pressure × amount of water is turning a waterwheel—how much work is being done.

    References

    A Khan, S., & Rahman, A. (2019). Efficiency of thin film photovoltaic paint: A brief review. International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering (IJRTE), 7(6s), 1–7. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Md-Ataur-Rahman-14/publication/332762858_The_efficiency_of_thin_film_photovoltaic_paint_A_brief_review/links/5cc85708a6fdcc1d49bbb13d/The-efficiency-of-thin-film-photovoltaic-paint-A-brief-review.pdf
    Alanazi, T. I. (2023). Current spray-coating approaches to manufacture perovskite solar cells. Results in Physics, 44, 106144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rinp.2022.106144
    Bishop, J. E., Smith, J. A., & Lidzey, D. G. (2020). Development of Spray-Coated Perovskite Solar Cells. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 12(43), 48237–48245. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.0c14540
    Chowdhury, T. A., Bin Zafar, Md. A., Sajjad-Ul Islam, Md., Shahinuzzaman, M., Islam, M. A., & Khandaker, M. U. (2023). Stability of perovskite solar cells: issues and prospects. RSC Advances, 13(3), 1787–1810. https://doi.org/10.1039/d2ra05903g
    Group, M.-B. (2025, January 15). Mercedes-Benz Group. Mercedes-Benz Group. https://group.mercedes-benz.com/innovations/product-innovation/technology/research-activities-2024.html
    https://www.facebook.com/8MSolar. (2025, April 2). Solar Paint – Turning Any Surface into a Solar Panel (2025) | 8MSolar. 8MSolar. https://8msolar.com/solar-paint-turning-any-surface-into-a-solar-panel/
    https://www.facebook.com/canadianassociationcor. (2023, September). How Does Solar Paint Work? – A Comprehensive Guide – Canadian Association for the Club of Rome. Canadian Association for the Club of Rome. https://canadiancor.com/breaking-news/how-does-solar-paint-work-a-comprehensive-guide/
    Khatoon, S., Kumar Yadav, S., Chakravorty, V., Singh, J., Bahadur Singh, R., Hasnain, M. S., & Hasnain, S. M. M. (2023). Perovskite solar cell’s efficiency, stability and scalability: A review. Materials Science for Energy Technologies, 6, 437–459. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mset.2023.04.007
    News Release: Perovskite Technology is Scalable, But Questions Remain about the Best Methods | NREL. (2025). Nrel.gov. https://www.nrel.gov/news/detail/press/2018/perovskite-technology-is-scalable-but-questions-remain-about-the-best-methods
    NREL Inks a Future for Perovskites | NREL. (2025). Nrel.gov. https://www.nrel.gov/news/detail/features/2018/nrel-inks-a-future-for-perovskites
    Padgaonkar, A. (2023). The potential of solar paint to harvest solar energy. Journal of High School Science, 7(1). https://doi.org/10.64336/001c.73368
    Patel, P. (2022, December 21). Paper-Thin Solar Makes Any Surface Photovoltaic – IEEE Spectrum. Spectrum.ieee.org. https://spectrum.ieee.org/thin-film-solar-panels
    Sargent, E. H. (2010, January 29). Infrared Optoelectronics You Can Apply With a Brush. IEEE Spectrum. https://spectrum.ieee.org/infrared-optoelectronics-you-can-apply-with-a-brush
    Solar Energy Technologies Office. (2018). Perovskite Solar Cells. Energy.gov; US Department of Energy. https://www.energy.gov/eere/solar/perovskite-solar-cells
    SolarPaint – 972VC. (2024). 972VC. https://972vc.com/startups/solarpaint/
    Stability of Perovskite Solar Cells Tripled with Protective Coating. (2024, November 22). Northwestern Engineering. https://www.mccormick.northwestern.edu/news/articles/2024/11/stability-of-perovskite-solar-cells-doubled-with-protective-coating/
  • Aviation: Pros, Cons, and Innovations

    Aviation: Pros, Cons, and Innovations

    By Charlotte Lee

    ~ 7 Minutes

    Aviation facilitates long-distance travel, quick package delivery, and is essential to military operations. However, aviation plays a big part in daily life that often goes unappreciated. This can be both good and bad. Aviation enables quick medical transportation for operations like cross-state lung transplants, supports search and rescue operations, and creates jobs. However, it is also a significant factor in climate change, noise pollution, and airports can disproportionately affect the health and home values of residents nearby.

    What is Aviation?

    Aviation deals with the activities related to the flight, operation, and design of aircraft. Most commonly, the aviation industry is thought of as the commercial airline industry that is travel-based and includes brands like American Airlines, United Airlines, and Emirates.

    New model calculates how air transport connects the world / MIT News ©

    The Pros of Aviation:

    Transportation and Connection-

    Flying is the main source of transportation for international tourists, with 58% of travelers opting to fly. This connects people to their families, enables faster trips, offers a wider range of locations, and provides remote communities access to necessities like healthcare and education.

    Additionally, flight connects businesses to people across the globe, allowing them to ship their goods and reach new customers. The air freight industry is a large with approximately $ 6.8 trillion worth of goods relying on air cargo to reach their destinations. It also creates package delivery services like UPS, Amazon, and FedEx.

    Essential Services–

    Aviation facilitates emergency operations like disaster relief, search and rescue, and medical operations. In disaster relief, aviation allows for the delivery of supplies, outside personnel, and medical aid. 35,000 tons of food and 4,800 tons of health-related vital relief cargo were delivered using aircraft in 2023. Aircraft can also better aid in search and rescue because they are not obstructed by obstacles like difficult terrain or broken infrastructure. The equipment on search and rescue helicopters, like infrared cameras, saves lives by accelerating the process of locating survivors where time is of the utmost importance. This is why the Civil Air Patrol operates in about 90% of search and rescue missions in the US.

    Additionally, it is not always possible to transport the injured to medical care via a traditional ambulance. Air ambulances can reduce response time, access restricted areas, and provide life-saving care. They can also facilitate cross-state transplants where an organ may be available in one state and the receiving patient is in another. This can increase the pool and possibility for a person to receive the transplant that they need.

    Social and Cultural-

    Air travel connects people faster than any other transportation system. This allows for culture and traditions to spread across the globe, leading to international relations and a better appreciation for other countries. Ideas, books, and knowledge also pass through the aviation industry because every person who travels somewhere else has their unique ideas and important knowledge that they spread.

    Aviation Jobs and Careers / Technical Education Post ©

    Job Creation-

    The aviation industry creates about 86.5 million jobs internationally. Secure jobs drive international growth because they provide people with a stable source of income that can be invested back into their country’s economy and children’s education. This is especially growing in Africa and Latin America, where the number of jobs in the aviation industry is projected to double in Africa and increase by 20 million in Latin America by 2043. In North America alone, the industry has brought about 1.4 trillion dollars. 49.2 billion dollars were also invested in the building and renovation of airports, which created more construction.

    Fashion-

    Aviation Fashion is often supplemented by movies like Top Gun, The Aviator, and Catch Me If You Can, and social media. It combines practicality with fashion and has produced some of the most iconic pieces, like the Ray Ban aviator glasses. Some other notable pieces and brands are bomber jackets, pilot hats, and Aviator Nation.

    Bomber Jacket / Top Gun Store ©

    Cons of Aviation:

    Climate change impacts / National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

    Climate Change-

    Because there has been an increase in flights, emissions from aviation have grown more than any other type of transportation. Airplanes release CO2 when burning fossil fuels, but they also leave vapor trails, soot, water, and gases like Nitrogen Oxides, and Sulfur dioxide. These combined create contrail cirrus or artificial clouds, which can increase greenhouse gases. While climate change is usually connected to CO2 levels, these non-CO2 effects from aircraft have contributed twice as much to global warming as aircraft CO2 emissions.

    Uneven medical disparities-

    Aircrafts release CO2, NOx, and SOx, which can negatively affect the people living there, as shown through the higher respiratory disease, morbidity, and mortality rates among people who live near airports. The noise pollution from the airplanes not only lowers the value of homes nearby but also has detrimental effects on residents. It can lead to stress, negative results in children’s cognitive development, and increased rates of hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and hyperactivity.

    Innovations:

    So many advances have been made since the first airplanes. The average flight today already produces 54% less CO2 than a flight in 1990. Innovations continue to be made to decrease CO2 emissions.

    SAFs (sustainable aviation fuels)-

    A lower-carbon alternative to jet fuel, first commercially used by United Airlines. SAF, or sustainable aviation fuel, has 85% lower GHG emissions.  They are produced by converting renewable or waste materials—such as agricultural residues and used cooking oil—into fuel, sometimes using renewable energy in the process. This approach helps reduce both emissions and waste. 

    NextGen Aircraft Design is Key to Aviation Sustainability / NASA ©

    Recycling and Aircraft Design-

    Reducing fuel burn and greenhouse gas emissions are critical to minimizing the effects of climate change. This is accomplished through more efficient aircraft designs. One way of making the aircraft more efficient is with truss-based wings, as seen in the picture above. These wings produce as much lift as traditional wings, but much less drag, resulting in less fuel consumption. Another way of making the aircraft more efficient is by using recycled materials to build the plane. When made this way, aircraft are lighter, less expensive, stronger, and easier to repair.

    Airports are also doing their part in using recycled materials. The Galapagos Ecological Airport’s terminal is made of 80% recycled materials. It also runs entirely off of renewable energy and has its own desalination plants that allow the airport to use local seawater. This airport is the first ecologically friendly airport and has inspired other airports to be environmentally friendly, like the Bohol-Panglao Airport in the Philippines.

    Water usage-

    Water usage is an aspect often not associated with aviation, but aircraft need to be cleaned for hygiene, safety, and efficiency (since dirt and grime on the plane can make it heavier and increase fuel consumption). The traditional cleaning process can use up to 13,000 tons of water. However, innovations such as dry washing aircraft have lowered that amount by 95%.

    Dry washing, which Emirates Airlines introduced in 2016, uses little to no water. It is a liquid cleaning product that is manually applied and wiped off with a microfiber cloth. It also leaves a film on the airplane that allows planes to stay cleaner for longer and for Emirates to save 11 million liters of water a year.

    References

    Admin, T. O. C. (2018, April 19). Air Cargo: Facts & Figures. TOC Logistics International, LLC. https://www.toclogistics.com/air-cargo-facts-figures/
    Aviation-o-holic – By Kush. (2024, August 15). The Climate Change & Aviation Crisis | In 5 Minutes. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lyvshz4VOMU
    Banke, J. (2020, April 16). NextGen Aircraft Design is Key to Aviation Sustainability – NASA. NASA. https://www.nasa.gov/aeronautics/nextgen-aircraft-design-is-key-to-aviation-sustainability/
    Biscontini, T. (2024). Environmental impact of aviation | EBSCO. EBSCO Information Services, Inc. | http://Www.ebsco.com. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/environmental-sciences/environmental-impact-aviation
    Dodd, H. (2023). Supporting economic & social development | ATAG. Atag.org. https://atag.org/industry-topics/supporting-economic-social-development
    Egere-Cooper, M. (2015, August 4). This airport runs on wind. CNN. https://edition.cnn.com/travel/article/galapagos-ecological-airport-wind-and-solar-power/index.html
    Emirates showcases environment friendly aircraft cleaning technique. (n.d.). Aviationbenefits.org. https://aviationbenefits.org/newswire/2017/06/emirates-showcases-environment-friendly-aircraft-cleaning-technique/
    Keller, R. (2023). Social and Environmental Impacts of Commercial Aviation. Social and Environmental Impacts of Commercial Aviation
    Lee, S. (2025). How Sustainable Aviation Innovations Create a Greener Flight. Numberanalytics.com. https://www.numberanalytics.com/blog/sustainable-aviation-innovations-greener-flight
    SDG 6: Clean Water and Sanitation. (n.d.). Aviationbenefits.org. https://aviationbenefits.org/un-sustainable-development-goals/sdg-6-clean-water-and-sanitation/
    SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy. (n.d.). Aviationbenefits.org. https://aviationbenefits.org/un-sustainable-development-goals/sdg-7-affordable-and-clean-energy/
    SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production. (2019). Aviationbenefits.org. https://aviationbenefits.org/un-sustainable-development-goals/sdg-12-responsible-consumption-and-production/
    SDG 13: Climate Action. (n.d.). Aviationbenefits.org. https://aviationbenefits.org/un-sustainable-development-goals/sdg-13-climate-action/
    T&E. (2024, April 19). Airplane pollution. http://Www.transportenvironment.org. https://www.transportenvironment.org/topics/planes/airplane-pollution
    Transportation Review. (2025, January 16). Transportation Review |The Role of Aviation in Emergency Response and Humanitarian Aid. Transportation Review. https://www.transportationreview.com/news/the-role-of-aviation-in-emergency-response-and-humanitarian-aid-nwid-636.html
    United Airlines. (2023). Our Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) Program. United.com. https://www.united.com/en/us/fly/company/responsibility/sustainable-aviation-fuel.html

  • The Quantum Encryption Crisis

    The Quantum Encryption Crisis

    By Aashritha Shankar

    ~18 minutes

    “Some experts in the field predict that the first quantum computer capable of breaking current encryption methods could be developed within the next decade. Encryption is used to prevent unauthorized access to sensitive data, from government communications to online transactions, and if encryption can be defeated, the privacy and security of individuals, organizations, and entire nations would be under threat.” – The HIPAA Journal

    Introduction

    The cybersecurity landscape is facing a drastic shift as the increasing power of quantum computers threatens modern encryption. Experts predict a quantum D-day (Q-day) in the next 5-10 years, when quantum computers will be sufficiently powerful to break through even the strongest of cybersecurity mechanisms. Meanwhile, few companies have begun to prepare against the threat, developing quantum resistant cybersecurity methods. However, to fully combat the threat, we need to act now.

    Encryption Today

    Modern cryptography is dominated by two major algorithms that transform ordinary text into ciphertext:

    1. Rivest-Shamir-Adleman (RSA)

     Dating back to 1977, the RSA algorithm relies on the factoring of large numbers. RSA can be separated into two parts, a private and public key. The public key, used for encoding, is a pair of numbers (n, e)where n is the product of 2 large prime numbers (p•q=n). The value of e can be any number that is co-prime to (p-1)(q-1), meaning that the GCF of (p-1)(q-1) and e is 1. The private key (d), used for decoding, is the reciprocal of the least common multiple of (p-1)(q-1) and e and can also be found by solving the equation 1= d • e • (p-1)(q-1) for d. 

    For decades, RSA has provided security for digital data because large scale of (n, e) numbers in addition to the variability of e means that it is nearly impossible to decipher (p, q) from (n, e). However, quantum computing brings forth the ability to quickly factor large numbers, allowing (p, q) to be determined from just the public key. 

    2. Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC): 

    Since 1985, ECC algorithms have been favored over RSA’s due to their greater complexity and faster encryption, with ECC’s capabilities proving to be up to ten times faster.  ECC algorithms use an elliptical curve of the form y2=x3+ax+b over a finite field of not necessarily real numbers (Fp). A field Fp includes numbers from 0 to p-1,  where p is prime. 

    Figure 1: The elliptic curve 
    Figure 2: The elliptic curve over F11

    For the purpose of illustration, let us take the elliptical equation y2=x3+13 and a field F11. Figure 1 shows the elliptical curve while figure 2 shows the solutions to y2 =x3+13 (mod 11). The order of the curve is the number of points, including the arbitrary one at infinity, that satisfy the equation over a specific field (12 points in figure 2). The private key is some value k between 1 and the order of the curve. The public key can be calculated by taking one of the points, called the generator point (G), and multiplying it by k (kG). This system then encrypts the information using the public key (kG) and can only be decrypted by those who know k. 

    For example, let us take a value of k=5 and the point (9,4) as the generator point (G). When we multiply 5G, we are given the point (9,7), which would be the public key. However, just given the 2 points, it is extremely difficult to find the value of k. 

    ECC algorithms have long been considered nearly unbreakable due to the elliptic curve discrete logarithm problem , or the ‘ECDLP’. The ECDLP is a mathematical problem that asks: Given two points (P, Q) on an elliptic curve, what operation or algorithms could be used to find the specific constant k such that k multiplied by P equals Q?

    The key issue in solving this lies in point multiplication, where a tangent line is drawn to a point on the elliptical curve (P) as part of the operation. Wherever that line intersects the elliptical curve again is point Q’. When Q’ is reflected across the x-axis of the equation (not necessarily y=0),  the result is  Q which equates to 2P. This process is continued  until KP is reached.  While it is straightforward to find Q given P and K, it is nearly impossible to find K given P and Q because there is currently no known inverse operation to undo, or solve for the coefficient in point multiplication.

    Ultimately, RSA and ECC algorithms are what encrypt all of digital data and communication. They keep everything secure from classified government data to something as simple as a text message. Encryption allows private information to remain private and large national or international systems to continue functioning. It acts as a barrier against bad actors looking to hack or exploit this private data. Without encryption, there would be no safeguard for any data. Imagine if everything you ever put on  a device, whether private photos or bank information, suddenly became public. You would no longer be able to trust digital privacy and safety if these algorithms were to fail.

    A Brief History of Quantum

    Timeline of quantum / Quantum computing review / Fiveable ©

    To understand the momentous advancements in quantum computing, it is important to take a step back and examine the field’s origins as well as how quantum mechanics have evolved over time. Written in 1900 by Max Planck, the ‘Quantum Hypothesis’ explored the idea that rather than the conventionally accepted continuously flowing energy, energy was actually emitted in non-connected packets called quanta. His work laid the foundation for an exploration into what has become the field of quantum mechanics. Both Einstein’s 1905 work on the Photoelectric effect and Niels Bohr’s 1913 work on the atom further supported this claim by suggesting quantum leaps and the particle-like behaviors of a photon.

    In 1927, Heisenberg formulated his uncertainty principle, which stated that it is impossible to simultaneously know the position and the speed of a particle with perfect accuracy. Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen each published various works in 1935, questioning quantum mechanics via entanglement, or the influence of the state of one particle on the state of another simultaneously over great distances. Recent works have shown that entanglement can connect particles even between a satellite and the Earth.  John Bell later proved entanglement by conducting experiments in search of violations of the Bell inequalities in 1964.

     In 1926 Schrodinger created a system of wave equations that accurately predicted the energy levels of electrons in atoms. Neumann built on this alongside Hilbert’s work to create the mathematical framework for quantum mechanics, formalizing quantum states and creating a method to understand the behavior of quantum systems. In the 1940s Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga developed their theory of Quantum Electrodynamics (QED) which described the interactions of light and matter. 

    The 1980 conference of physicists, mathematicians, and computer scientists was the turning point from quantum theories into quantum applications, laying the foundation for all of quantum computing. While the first working laser was created in the 1950s, quantum mechanics was not explored much further untilPaul Benioff’s 1980 description of a quantum computer,the first step towards quantum computing.

    Quantum Computing: What is it and how does it work?

    Figure 3: Entanglement of 2 particles / Quantum explained / NIST ©
    Figure 4: Superposition with and without measurement / Quantum explained / NIST ©

    Quantum computing is based on two key principles:

    1. Superposition: The state of being in multiple states or places at once. Superposition is mostly commonly seen with overlaps of waves, but at a quantum level can be understood as a particle being in both state 1 and state 0 at the same time. However, when measured these particles must settle at either state 1 or state 0. The most commonly known analogy to explain this is the Schrodinger’s cat analogy: If you were to put a cat inside of a box with a substance that has an equal chance of killing or not killing the cat within an hour, then after one hour you could say that the cat is both dead and alive until you measure it, at which point it must be either dead or alive.
    2. Entanglement: A phenomenon by which two particles become connected such that the fate of one affects the other, irrespective of the distance between the two. Prior to any measurement, two particles will always be in a state of superposition, meaning that the particles can be in both state 0 and state 1 at the same time. However, when measured, the state of one particle will directly affect the state of the other. This principle was proven by John Bell via the Bell inequalities.

    Quantum computing allows storage of more information and more efficient processes, creating opportunities to infinitely increase the rate at which many modern machines work. While they face setbacks in these developing stages, they make it possible to perform multiple simultaneous operations rather than being limited by the tunnel effect that limits most modern machines to straightforward operations.

    Quantum systems use qubits as the fundamental unit of information transfer instead of the traditional bit. Qubits allow for the superposition of ones and zeros making it possible for quantum computers with very few qubits to perform billions of operations per second, over a million times faster than the best computers on the market today. In addition, the entanglement of multiple qubits means that information capacity grows exponentially rather than linearly.

    Compare and Contrast: Quantum Computers vs. Traditional Computers

    The Quantum Threat to Cryptography

    While current computers may not be strong enough to carry out an attack on cryptography, the emerging field of quantum computing poses a risk to all of modern encryption.

    Is the threat just theoretical?

    Even as an emerging technology, quantum computing poses a very real threat to cryptography. While many people would be more than willing to write it off as a threat of the future, that future may be closer than you believe. Quantum computing has shown its strength through many algorithms which could potentially result in the compromisation of sensitive data.

    The most prominent algorithm in regards to cryptography is Shor’s ‘Factoring Algorithm’ from 1994. Specifically, Shor’s Factoring Algorithm (SFA) is a major threat to RSA cryptography systems. As I mentioned earlier, RSA systems rely on the creation of large numbers as the product of two prime numbers, basing security over the inability to efficiently factor those numbers.

    According to Thorsten Kleinjung of the University of Bonn, it would take around two years to factor  N = 135066410865995223349603216278805969938881475605667027524485 14385152651060485953383394028715057190944179820728216447155137368041970396419174 304649658927425623934102086438320211037295872576235850964311056407350150818751067 6594629205563685529 475213500852879416377328533906109750544334999811150056977236 890927563  with under 2 GB of memory.

    Shor’s Algorithm could exponentially speed this up by working as follows:

    1. Start with the large number (N) and a guess (g). If g is a factor of N or shares a factor with N then we have already found the factors. 
    2. If g is foreign to N, then we use the property that for any 2 prime numbers (a,b) there exists one power (n) and one multiple (m) such that an= mb+1. Applying this here we get gn= mN + 1. We can further rewrite this as (gn/2-1)(gn/2+1)= mN. We can now change our objective from searching for values of g to searching for values of n. 
    3. This is where quantum computing makes a vital difference. By testing many possible values of n, the quantum system starts in a superposition of states. After attempting to solve for n using the above equation (mod N), we begin to take advantage of the fact that if gx mod(N) = r  then gx+pmod(N) =r if p is the period of the equation ( gp=1). When we utilize superposition, we test to see what values of x produce the same remainder, as the distance between those x values will be the period. 
    4. We can derive from this the frequency (f=1/p)
    5. Here we can apply a Quantum Fourier Transform (similar to a classical Fourier Transform): When we absorb all the constructive and destructive interference of the superposition, 1/p is the remaining frequency. 
    6. Now that we have a candidate for p, we calculate our best guess for gp and iterate as necessary to correct quantum error.

    Aside from algorithms, many corporations have made recent advancements towards building quantum computers as well. As recently as June 2025, Nord Quantique, a Canadian startup, announced their breakthrough ‘bosonic qubit’ which has built in error correction. This creates the potential to produce successful, encryption breaking 1000-qubit machines by 2031, far more efficient than the previously estimated 1 million-qubits.

    The ‘Harvest Now, Decrypt Later’ Tactic

    Another major reason why quantum mechanics is a threat to cryptography includes the ‘harvest now, decrypt later’ (HNDL) tactic.  As the predicted Q-day nears (2035), threatening actors have begun to collect and store encrypted data, with the goal of decrypting it in the future with sufficiently powerful quantum machines. The attackers may not be able to decrypt the data, but they can intercept communications to steal encrypted data.

    While it is easy to dismiss these attacks as something that could only be effective on nation-state levels, this assumption only feeds a false sense of security. For bad actors, corporate information could enable them to threaten economic chaos and large-scale disruptions. In fact, experts believe that these attacks have become increasingly focused on businesses as they hold the people’s data and the power to create mass economic instability.

    Matthew Scholl, Chief of the Computer Science at NIST described the threat by saying,

    “Imagine I send you a message that’s top secret, and I’ve encrypted it using this type of encryption, and that message is going to need to stay top secret for the next 20 years. We’re betting that an adversary a) hasn’t captured that message somehow as we sent it over the internet, b) hasn’t stored that message, and c) between today and 20 years from now will not have developed a quantum machine that could break it. This is what’s called the store-and-break threat.”

    The most concerning aspect of these HNDL attacks is that it is nearly impossible to know when your data has been stolen, until it comes into effect with the rise of quantum computing. By then, the damage will be irreversible. While not all data will be of high value over a decade from now, attackers are threatening specific data that they believe will hold long-term value. 

    Over the past 10 years, incidents have arisen that resemble HNDL attacks:

    • In 2016, Canadian internet traffic to South Korea, was being rerouted through China
    • In 2020, data from many large online platforms was rerouted through Russia
    • A study by HP’s Wolf Security discovered that one third of the cyber attacks conducted by nation-states between 2017 and 2020 were aimed at businesses 

    Post Quantum Cryptography ( PQC)

    However, companies and nations have already begun to look into ways to protect data from quantum attacks. Post-Quantum encryption algorithms focus on encrypting data in a way that will be equally difficult for quantum machines to break as it is for the classic computer.

    The Deputy Secretary of US Commerce, Don Graves said,

    “The advancement of quantum computing plays an essential role in reaffirming America’s status as a global technological powerhouse and driving the future of our economic security. Commerce bureaus are doing their part to ensure U.S. competitiveness in quantum, including the National Institute of Standards and Technology, which is at the forefront of this whole-of-government effort. NIST is providing invaluable expertise to develop innovative solutions to our quantum challenges, including security measures like post-quantum cryptography that organizations can start to implement to secure our post-quantum future. As this decade-long endeavor continues, we look forward to continuing Commerce’s legacy of leadership in this vital space.”

    One example of a potentially powerful PQC algorithm is CRYSTALS-Kyber, which the NIST declared the best for general encryption in 2022. They added HQC to their list of PQC algorithms in 2024, giving us a grand total of five algorithms that have met the standard.

    The NIST has named their standards for PQCs and urges people to work towards incorporating them now, because the full shift to PQCs may take as long as developing those quantum computers will take. Their key goals in this endeavor are to not only find algorithms that are resistant to quantum computing, but to diversify the types of mathematics involved to mitigate the risk of compromised data. They search for algorithms that are both able to be easily implemented and improved so that they maintain a ‘crypto-agility’.

    Many companies support PQCs and believe that they will safeguard the future of cryptography. Whitfield Diffie, cryptography expert, explains that

    “One of the main reasons for delayed implementation is uncertainty about what exactly needs to be implemented. Now that NIST has announced the exact standards, organizations are motivated to move forward with confidence.”

    Companies such as Google, Microsoft, IBM, and AWS are actively working to develop better resistance to quantum threats, helping to build some of the most powerful PQC algorithms. IBM is currently advocating for a Cryptography Bill of Materials (CBOM), a new standard to keep tabs on cryptographic assets and introduce more oversight into the system. Microsoft has become one of the founding members of the PQC Coalition, a group whose mission is to step forward and provide valuable outreach alongside education to support the shift towards PQC as the primary form of encryption.

    While PQCs could be a valuable resource against quantum threats, there are still setbacks that make people question the validity of the whole effort. The Supersingular Isogeny Key Exchange (SIKE) algorithm, one of the NIST finalists for the PQC standard, failed due to a successful attack by a classical computer, rendering many of the fundamental mathematical assumptions false. In addition, many of these algorithms suffer due to a lack of extensive testing and uncertainty regarding how much quantum machines will actually be able to accomplish.

    Conclusion

    While the timeline of PQC development might be uncertain, it is imperative that we work now. Quantum computing is no longer a threat looming in the future, but a present reality with significant impacts.It is imperative  that we begin shifting towards these safer systems as a community. We cannot wait until the threat has come, we need to prepare now.

    Rob Joyce, the Director of the National Security Administration’s Cybersecurity has stated that,

    “The transition to a secured quantum computing era is a long-term intensive community effort that will require extensive collaboration between government and industry. The key is to be on this journey today and not wait until the last minute.”

    Above all, it is crucial to recognize the threat and take action. Educating the people is the first step towards group action. Let awareness be our first line of defense.

    References

    Bakhtiari, M., & Mohd Aizaini Maarof. (2012). Serious Security Weakness in RSA Cryptosystem. International Journal of Computer Science Issues, 9(1). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267941681_Serious_Security_Weakness_in_RSA_Cryptosystem
    Caltech. (2023a). What Is Entanglement and Why Is It Important? Caltech Science Exchange. https://scienceexchange.caltech.edu/topics/quantum-science-explained/entanglement
    Caltech. (2023b). What Is Superposition and Why Is It Important? Caltech Science Exchange. https://scienceexchange.caltech.edu/topics/quantum-science-explained/quantum-superposition
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